Analog & Digital Communications

By
KASULA RAGHU
Assistant Professor
Dept. of E.C.E.,MGIT

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 UNIT- IV

Pulse Modulation
&
Pulse Code Modulation

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 Contents

• Pulse Modulation: Types of Pulse modulation- PAM, PWM and

PPM. Comparison of FDM and TDM.
• Pulse Code Modulation: PCM Generation and Reconstruction,
Quantization Noise, Non-Uniform, Quantization and
Companding, DPCM, Adaptive DPCM, DM and Adaptive DM,
Noise in PCM and DM.

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 ANALOG PULSE MODULATION SCHEMES
Pulse Modulation:

The process of transmitting the signals in the form of pulses by using

some special techniques.

There are two types of pulse modulation systems,

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation.
2. Pulse Width Modulation or Pulse Duration Modulation.
3. Pulse Position Modulation
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 Sampling theorem

Statement: A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can

be recovered back when sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the

twice the highest frequency component of message signal. i. e. fs≥2fm

(or)

• An analog signal is converted into a corresponding sequence of samples that

are usually spaced uniformly in time.

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 Figure: Illustration of sampling process. (a) Analog waveform (b) Instantaneously
sampled representation of the analog Signal
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04/07/2021 7
 𝑔δ 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 σ∞
𝑛=−∞ δ(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇𝑠 )

𝑔δ 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑔(𝑛𝑇𝑠 )δ(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇𝑠 )

𝑛=−∞ ∞
1 𝑛
𝐺δ 𝑓 = 𝐺 𝑓 ∗ ෍ δ(𝑓 − )
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
𝑛=−∞
𝑛 𝑛
We Know, 𝐺 𝑓 ∗ δ(𝑓 − ) = G(𝑓 − )
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠

∞
1 𝑛
𝐺δ 𝑓 = ෍ 𝐺(𝑓 − )
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
𝑛=−∞

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 𝐺δ 𝑓
Case-1: fs = 2W

………… …………

-15KHz fs= -10KHz -5KHz fs= 0Hz 5KHz 15KHz f

fs= 10KHz

Let W= 5KHz Then Sampling Frequency will be equal to Greater than fs = 2W

Let fs= 10KHz (10,000 Samp./Sec)

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 𝐺δ 𝑓
Case-2: fs > 2W

………… …………

fs= -15KHz -5KHz 5KHz 10KHz 20KHz f

-20KHz -10KHz fs= 0Hz fs= 15KHz

Let W= 5KHz Then Sampling Frequency will be equal to Greater than fs= 10KHz

Let fs= 15KHz (15,000 Samp./Sec)

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 𝐺δ 𝑓
Case-3: fs < 2W

………… …………

-12.5KHz -5KHz -2.5KHz 2.5KHz 5KHz fs= 12.5KHz f

fs= -7.5KHz fs= 0Hz fs= 7.5KHz

Let W= 5KHz Then Sampling Frequency will be equal to Greater than fs < 2W

Let fs= 7.5KHz (7,500 Samp./Sec)

Drawback : Aliasing Effect

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 Corrective Measures for Aliasing
1. Prior to sampling, a low-pass anti-aliasing filter is used to attenuate those
high frequency components of the signal that are not essential to the
information being conveyed by the signal.

2. The filtered signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate.
Also, it has the beneficial effect of easing the design of the reconstruction
filter used to recover the original signal from its sampled version.

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 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION(PAM)

In Pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of pulses of carrier

pulse train is varied in accordance with the modulating signal.

In PAM , the pulses can be flat top type or natural type or ideal
type. Out of these, flat top PAM is widely used because of easy
noise removal.

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 Natural Sampling

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 Natural Sampling
• The sample and hold circuit consists of two FETs and a capacitor.

• The sampling switch is closed for a short duration by a short pulse applied to
the gate G1 of transistor.
• During this charged period, the Capacitor is quickly to a voltage equal to
instantaneous sample value of incoming signal x(t).
• When the sampling switch is opened for next half of the duration capacitor is
discharged to zero volts.
• Hence the output of circuit consists of a sequence of natural samples.

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 PAM GENERATION

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 s(t)= c(t)g(t)

𝐴𝑇 ∞ 𝑛𝑇 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡
c(t)= σ𝑛=−∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 exp
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠

𝐴𝑇 ∞ 𝑛𝑇 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡
s 𝑡 = σ𝑛=−∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 exp 𝑔(𝑡)
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠

Taking F.T on both sides

𝐴𝑇 ∞ 𝑛𝑇 𝑛
S 𝑓 = σ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝐺(𝑓 − )
𝑇𝑠 𝑛=−∞ 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠

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 Spectrum of the Natural Sampled Signal

Note1: we Assumed that g(t) contains no frequencies outside –W to W, and sampling rate
1
is greater than the Nyquist rate 2W, so that there is no Aliasing effect. We see that finite
𝑇
𝑠
𝐴𝑇
duration of the sampled pulses is to multiply with the nth Lobe of the spectrum S(f) by
𝑇𝑠
𝑛𝑇
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 . The Original signal g(t) can be recovered from s(t) by passing through ideal
𝑇𝑠
LPF.
Note2: If AT=1 , so that each Rectangular pulse has Unit Area i.e. Pulse duration T
approaches to Zero, then s 𝑓 approaches 𝐺δ 𝑓 . (Ideal Sampling)
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 Flat-Top Sampling

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 s 𝑡 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔 𝑛𝑇𝑠 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇𝑠

The h(t) is a Rectangular Pulse of unit Amplitude and duration T. defined as

below

1 0<𝑡<𝑇
1
h(t)= 𝑡 = 0, 𝑡 = 𝑇
2
0 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

The instantaneous sampled version of g(t) is given by

𝑔δ 𝑡 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑔(𝑛𝑇𝑠 )δ(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇𝑠 )

Convolving the 𝑔δ 𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 ℎ 𝑡 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

∞
𝑔δ 𝑡 * h(t) = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑔δ 𝜏 h(𝑡 − τ)dτ
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 ∞
g δ t * h(t) = ‫׬‬−∞ g δ τ h(t − τ)dτ

∞
= ‫׬‬−∞ σ∞
n=−∞ g(nTs )δ(t − nTs ) h(t − τ)dτ

∞
= σ∞
n=−∞ g(nTs ) nTs )h(t − τ)dτ
‫׬‬−∞ δ(t −
Using Shifting Property of Delta Function, we Obtain

g δ t * h(t) = σ∞
n=−∞ g(nTs ) h(t − nTs )

Which is Mathematically Equivalent to the Convolution of instantaneous

sampled signal version of g(t) and the pulse h(t).

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 s(t)= g δ t * h(t)
Taking F.T on Both Sides we Get,
S(f) = Gδ f . H(f)
1 ∞ n
S(f) = σn=−∞ G(f − ). H(f)
Ts Ts

1
Finally, g(t) is a band limited signal with Sampling rate Greater than the Nyquist rate. Then
Ts

s(t) is passed through LPF having TF in Frequency domain H(f) = T sinc(fT)exp(-jΠfT).

By Flat top Samples we have introduced Amplitude Distortion as well as delay of T/2. This
effect is called as Aperture effect. The Distortion may be corrected by connecting an Equalizer
in cascade with Low pass reconstruction filter. The Amplitude response of the equalizer is given
1 1 1 ΠfT
by 𝐻(𝑓)
=
T sinc(fT)
=
𝑇 sin(ΠfT)
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 Transmission bandwidth of PAM
In PAM signal the pulse duration τ is assumed to be very small
compared to time period Ts (i.e τ < Ts)
If the maximum frequency in the modulating signal x(t) is fm then
1
sampling frequency fs is given by fs ≥2fm Or Ts ≤
2𝑓𝑚
1
Therefore, τ ≤ Ts ≤
2𝑓𝑚
If ON and OFF time of PAM pulse is equal then maximum frequency
1 1
of PAM pulse will be fmax = =
τ+τ 2τ
1 1
Therefore, Transmission bandwidth = = 1 = fm
2τ 2
2𝑓𝑚
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 Demodulation of PAM
Demodulation : It is the reverse process of getting message signal
from the modulated signal.

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 Demodulation of PAM
• For PAM signals, demodulation is done using a holding circuit.
• The received PAM signal is first passed through a holding circuit
and then through a lowpass filer.
• Switch S is closed during the arrival of the pulse and is opened at
the end of the pulse.
• Capacitor C is charged to pulse amplitude value and holds this
value during the interval between two pulses.
• Holding circuit output is then passed through a low pass filter to
extract the original signal.

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 Advantages, Disadvantages of PAM
Advantages:
• It is the simple process for modulation and demodulation
• Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to construct.
Disadvantages:
• Bandwidth requirement is high
• Interference of noise is maximum
• Power requirement is high
Applications:
• Used in microcontrollers for generating control signals
• Used as electronic driver for LED lighting
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 Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)
In PWM, the width of pulses of carrier pulse train is varied in
proportion with amplitude of modulating signal.

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 GENERATION of PWM & PPM

•A sawtooth generator generates a sawtooth signal of frequency fs, and this

sawtooth signal in this case is used as a sampling signal. It is applied to the
inverting terminal of a comparator.
•The modulating signal x (t) is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the
same comparator.
•The comparator output will remain high as long as the instantaneous
amplitude of x (t) is higher than that of the ramp signal.
•This gives rise to a PWM signal at the comparator output as shown in fig.228 .
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Here, it may be noted that the leading edges of the PWM waveform coincide
with the falling edges of the ramp signal. Thus, the leading edges of PWM
signal are always generated at fixed time instants.

However, the occurrence of its trailing edges will be dependent on the

instantaneous amplitude of x(t). Therefore, this PWM signal is said to be trail
edge04/07/2021
modulated PWM. 29
 Detection of PWM

The working operation of the circuit may be explained as under:

•The PWM signal received at the input of the detection circuit is contaminated
with noise. This signal is applied to pulse generator circuit which regenerates
the PWM signal.
•Thus, some of the noise is removed and the pulses are squared up.
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• The regenerated pulses are applied to a reference pulse generator. It produces a train of
constant amplitude, constant width pulses.
• These pulses are synchronized to the leading edges of the regenerated PWM pulses but
delayed by a fixed interval.
• The regenerated PWM pulses are also applied to a ramp generator. At the output of it, we
get a constant slope ramp for the duration of the pulse. The height of the ramp is thus
proportional to the width of the PWM pulses.
• At the end of the pulse, a sample and hold amplifier retains the final ramp voltage until it is
reset at the end of the pulse.
• The constant amplitude pulses at the output of reference pulse generator are then added to
the ramp signal.
• The output of the adder is then clipped off at a threshold level to generate a PAM signal at
the output of the clipper.
• A low pass filter is used to recover the original modulating signal back from the PAM
signal.
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The waveforms for this circuit have been shown in fig.4. 31
04/07/2021 32
• Advantages of PWM

1. Less effect of noise i.e., very good noise immunity.

2. Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver is not essential(Which is
essential in PPM).
3. It is possible to reconstruct the PWM signal from a noise, contaminated PWM,
as discussed in the detection circuit. Thus, it is possible to separate out signal
from noise (which is not possible in PAM).

• Disadvantages of PWM

1. Due to the variable pulse width, the pulses have variable power contents. Hence,
the transmission must be powerful enough to handle the maximum width, pulse,
though the average power transmitted can be as low as 50% of this maximum
power.
2. In order to avoid any waveform distortion, the bandwidth required for the PWM
communication is large as compared to bandwidth of PAM.
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 PULSE POSITION MODULATION(PPM)
Modulation technique in which position of pulses of carrier pulse train
is varied in accordance with amplitude of modulating signal.
Generation:

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 PPM GENERATION

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 DETECTION OF PPM

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 DETECTION OF PPM
• The circuit consists of S-R flipflop which is set or gives high
output when reference pulses arrive.
• Reference pulses are generated by a reference pulse generator.
• Flip-flop circuit is reset and gives low output at the leading edge
of PPM signal.
• The process repeats and we get PWM pulses at the output of
flip-flop.
• PWM pulses are then demodulated in a PWM demodulator to
get original modulating signal.

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 Comparison between PAM, PWM and PPM
S.No 8PAM PWM PPM

1 Amplitude is varied Width is varied Position is varied

2 Bandwidth depends on the Bandwidth depends on the rise Bandwidth depends on the
width of the pulse time of the pulse rise time of the pulse
3 Instantaneous transmitter Instantaneous transmitter Instantaneous transmitter
power varies with the power varies with the amplitude power remains constant with
amplitude of the pulses and the width of the pulses the width of the pulses
4 System complexity is high System complexity is low System complexity is low

5 Noise interference is high Noise interference is low Noise interference is low

6 It is similar to amplitude It is similar to frequency It is similar to phase

modulation modulation modulation
7 Output Waveform of PAM Output Waveform of PWM Output Waveform of PPM

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 Multiplexing

1)Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

2)Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

3)Code Division Multiple Access(CDMA)

4)Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)

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Advantages of multiplexing

1. Multiple signals can be sent simultaneously over a single communication

channel.
2. Effective use of channel bandwidth
3. Multiplexing reduces cost
4. Multiplexing reduces circuit complexity

Applications of Multiplexing

1. Communication system
2. Computer memory
3. Telephone systems
4. TV broadcasting
5. Telemetry
6. Satellites
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 Frequency Division Multiplexing

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• The frequency division multiplexing divides the bandwidth of a channel into several logical
sub-channels (individual signal frequencies (or) set of frequency bands).
• Each logical sub-channel is allotted for a different signal frequency. The individual signals
are filtered and then modulated (frequency is shifted), in order to fit exactly into logical
sub-channels.
• In this technique, each logical sub-channel (individual signal frequency) is allotted to each
user. In other words, each user owns a sub-channel.
• Each logical sub-channel is separated by an unused bandwidth called Guard Band to
prevent overlapping of signals. In other words, there exists a frequency gap between two
adjacent signals to prevent signal overlapping. A guard band is a narrow frequency range
that separates two signal frequencies.
04/07/2021 42
04/07/2021 43
Advantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. It transmits multiple signals simultaneously.

2. In frequency division multiplexing, the demodulation process is easy.
3. It does not need Synchronization between transmitter and receiver.

Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. It needs a large bandwidth communication channel.

Applications of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. Frequency division multiplexing is used for FM and AM radio

broadcasting.
2. It is used in first generation cellular telephone.
3. It is used in television broadcasting.
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 Comparison of FDM and TDM
S. No FDM TDM

1 FDM stands for Frequency Division Multiplexing. TDM stands for Time Division Multiplexing.
2 FDM is an Analog technique TDM is a Digital technique.
3 The communication channel is divided by The communication channel is divided by time.
frequency
4 All signals of different frequencies are transmitted All signals operate with the same frequency are
simultaneously. transmitted at different times.
5 Synchronization is not required Synchronization is required.
6 The bandwidth of the communication channel The bandwidth capacity of the communication channel
should be greater than the combined bandwidth of should be greater than the multiple input signals.
individual signals.
7 FDM requires complex circuitry at the transmitter TDM does not require complex circuitry.
and receiver.
8 In FDM, the problem of crosstalk is severe. In TDM, the problem of crosstalk is not severe.
9 The channel bandwidth is effectively used. The channel bandwidth is wasted.
10 FDM requires Guard bands for its operation. TDM requires sync pulse for its operation.
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11 FDM is used in TV and RADIO broadcasting TDM is used in Pulse code modulation
 Digital Communications

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 Introduction
• Digital communication is a mode of communication where the information or the thought
is encoded digitally as discreet signals and electronically transferred to the recipients.

• n digital communication information flows in a digital form and the source is generally
the keyboard of the computer. A single individual is capable of digital communication and
thus it also saves wastage of manpower and is one of the cheapest modes of
communication.

• Digital communication is also a really quick way to communicate. The information can
reach the recipient within a fraction of a second. An individual no longer has to wait to
personally meet the other individual and share his information.
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 Basic Digital Communication System

04/07/2021 48
 Advantages
• The Digital Communication's it provides us added security to our information signal.

• The digital Communication system has more immunity to noise and external interference.

• Digital information can be saved and retrieved when necessary while it is not possible in analog.

• Digital Communication is cheaper than Analog Communication.

• The configuring process of digital communication system is simple as compared to analog

communication system. Although, they are complex.

• In Digital Communication System, the error correction and detection techniques can be
implemented easily.

04/07/2021 49
 Disadvantages
• Disadvantages of digital communication:
1) Generally, more bandwidth is required than that for analog systems.
2) Synchronization is required.
3) High power consumption (Due to various stages of conversion).
4) Complex circuit, more sophisticated device making is also drawbacks of digital system.
5) Introduce sampling error
6) As square wave is more affected by noise, That’s why while communicating through
channel we send sin waves but while operating on device we use squire pulses.

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 Shannon–Hartley theorem
• The Shannon–Hartley theorem states the channel capacity C, meaning the
theoretical tightest upper bound on the information rate of data that can be
communicated at an arbitrarily low error rate using an average received signal
power S through an analog communication channel subject to additive white
Gaussian noise of power N

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• Where C is the channel capacity in bits per second, a theoretical upper bound
on the net bit rate (information rate, sometimes denoted I) excluding error-
correction codes;
• B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz (passband bandwidth in case of a
bandpass signal);
• S is the average received signal power over the bandwidth (in case of a carrier-
modulated passband transmission, often denoted C), measured in watts (or
volts squared);
• N is the average power of the noise and interference over the bandwidth,
measured in watts (or volts squared); and
• S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) of the
communication signal to the noise and interference at the receiver (expressed
as a linear power ratio, not as logarithmic decibels).

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 Analog to Digital Conversion

Sampler Quantizer Encoder

Analog Signal Sampled Quantized Digital Signal
Discrete Signal Discrete Signal

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 Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

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 Sampler

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04/07/2021 56
 Block diagram of regenerative repeater

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 Regenerative Repeater
A regenerative repeater (see Figure 3.18) consists of (1) an equalizer, (2) a timing circuit, and
(3) a decision-making device. The equalizer is used to undo the effect of the transmission
channel to get back the pulses in their original shape before transmission. The timing circuit
is used to recover the clock of the transmitted symbols (pulses), which is then used in the
decision-making process. The function of the decision-making device is to detect the
different pulses based on some threshold information.

The purpose of a regenerative repeater is to clean the PCM signal during its transmission
through a channel.

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 Differential Pulse Code Modulation

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 DPCM

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04/07/2021 61
04/07/2021 62
 e 𝑛𝑇𝑠 = m 𝑛𝑇𝑠 − 𝑚 ෝ 𝑛𝑇𝑠
It is the difference between unquantized input sample m 𝑛𝑇𝑠 and a prediction of it
𝑚ෝ 𝑛𝑇𝑠 .Prediction value is obtained by using Prediction filter. The difference signal e 𝑛𝑇𝑠 is
called prediction error.

The Quantizer output is represented as 𝑒𝑞 𝑛𝑇𝑠 = e 𝑛𝑇𝑠 + 𝑞𝑒 𝑛𝑇𝑠

Here, 𝑞𝑒 𝑛𝑇𝑠 is called the Quantization error. The Quantizer output 𝑒𝑞 𝑛𝑇𝑠 is added to the
predicted value 𝑚
ෝ 𝑛𝑇𝑠 to produce the prediction filter input.

𝑚𝑞 𝑛𝑇𝑠 = 𝑚
ෝ 𝑛𝑇𝑠 +𝑒𝑞 𝑛𝑇𝑠

𝑚𝑞 𝑛𝑇𝑠 = 𝑚 ෝ 𝑛𝑇𝑠 + e 𝑛𝑇𝑠 + 𝑞𝑒 𝑛𝑇𝑠

Here 𝑚
ෝ 𝑛𝑇𝑠 + e 𝑛𝑇𝑠 is equal to the input signal m 𝑛𝑇𝑠

𝑚𝑞 𝑛𝑇𝑠 = m 𝑛𝑇𝑠 + 𝑞𝑒 𝑛𝑇𝑠

which represents the Quantized version of the input signal m 𝑛𝑇𝑠 . If Prediction is Good
Variance of the prediction error e 𝑛𝑇𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 m 𝑛𝑇𝑠
04/07/2021 63
.
 Prediction Filter

𝑝
𝑥ො 𝑛 = 𝑚
ෝ 𝑛𝑇𝑠 =σ𝑘=𝑖 𝑤𝑘 𝑚𝑞 𝑛𝑇𝑠 − 𝑘𝑇𝑠
𝑝
e 𝑛𝑇𝑠 = m 𝑛𝑇𝑠 − σ𝑘=𝑖 𝑤𝑘 𝑚𝑞 𝑛𝑇𝑠 − 𝑘𝑇𝑠
The Weights 𝑤𝑘 should be adjusted Properly to have Good Prediction.
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 ADVANTAGES OF DPCM

1) BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENT OF DPCM IS LESS COMPARED TO PCM.

2) QUANTIZATION ERROR IS REDUCED BECAUSE OF PREDICTION FILTER.

3) NUMBERS OF BITS USED TO REPRESENT . ONE SAMPLE VALUE ARE ALSO

REDUCED COMPARED TO PCM

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 Delta Modulation / One Bit Modulation

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 DM system. (a) Transmitter. (b) Receiver.

04/07/2021 67
 Delta Modulation (DM)
 In DM, the message signal is over-sampled to purposely increase correlation
between adjacent samples.

 The DM provides a staircase approximation to the message signal m(t) as shown in

Figure 3.22.

 The difference e[nTs]=m[nTs]-mq[(n-1)Ts] is quantized into only two levels .

 The error e[nTs] is quantized to give
eq= sgn(e[nTs]).
The quantity eq is then used to compute the new
quantized level
mq[nTs]=mq[(n-1)Ts]+eq[nTs]
 In DM the quantization levels are represented by two symbols: 0 for - and 1 for
+. In fact the coding process is performed on eq.
 The main advantage of DM is its simplicity as shown by Figure 3.23.

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 . Illustration of delta modulation

04/07/2021 69
Illustration of the two different forms of quantization error in
delta modulation.

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 Delta Modulation (Cont’d)
 The transmitter of a DM system (Figure 3.23a) is given by a comparator, a one-bit quantizer,
an accumulator, and an encoder.
 The receiver of a DM system (Figure 3.23b) is given by a decoder, an accumulator, and a low-
pass filter.
 DM is subject to two types of quantization error: Slope overload distortion and granular noise
(see Figure 3.24).
 Slope overload distortion is due to the fact that the staircase approximation mq(t) can't follow
closely the actual curve of the message signal m(t). In order for mq(t) to follow closely m(t), it
is required that
 dm(t )
 max
Ts dt
be satisfied. Otherwise, step-size  is too small for the staircase approximation mq(t) to follow
m(t).

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 Delta Modulation (Cont’d)

 In contrast to slope-overload distortion, granular noise occurs when

 is too large relative to the local slope characteristics of m(t).
granular noise is similar to quantization noise in PCM.
 It seems that a large  is needed for rapid variations of m(t) to
reduce the slope-overload distortion and a small  is needed for
slowly varying m(t) to reduce the granular noise. The optimum 
can only be a compromise between the two cases.
 To satisfy both cases, an adaptive DM is needed, where the step
size  can be adjusted in accordance with the input signal m(t).
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 Condition for Slope overload distortion occurrence

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 SQNR of PCM

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Derivation of Maximum Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio for Linear Quantization:

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 SNR for DM System

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 Adaptive Delta Modulation

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 Block Diagram of Adaptive Delta Modulation

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 Adaptive delta Modulation
 Adaptive delta modulation (ADM) is a modification of DM, in which the step
size is adapted to the slope (variation) of the message signal.
 If successive errors are of opposite polarity, then the delta modulator is operating
in the granular mode; in such a case it is advantageous to use reduced step size.
 If successive errors are of the same polarity, then the delta modulator is operating
in its slope-overload mode; in this case, the step size should be increased.
 The algorithm used for adaptive DM with step size increase/decrease of 50% is
(k)=|(k-1)|(mq(k)+0.5mq(k-1))/mq(k), if (k-1)min
(k)=min, if (k-1)min
• where if (k) is the step size at iteration k and mq(k) is the one-bit quantizer output
that is equal to 1.

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Adaptive delta modulation system: (a) Transmitter. (b) Receiver

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 Figure 3.32
Waveforms resulting from the computer experiment on delta
modulation: (a) Linear delta modulation. (b) Adaptive delta
modulation.

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Block diagram illustrating the linear adaptive prediction process.

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 Differential PCM (DPCM)
 Voice and video signals represented in PCM exhibit high correlation, which means that
PCM signals contain redundant information. The result is an inefficient coding.
 By removing the PCM information redundancy a more efficient coded signal may be
obtained. This is done using DPCM.
 In DPCM a linear prediction is performed on samples of a message signal m(kTs)=m(k),
then the prediction error e(k )  m(k )  mˆ (k ) is computed and fed to a quantizer to obtain
the quantized value eq(k)=e(k)+q(k), as shown by Figure 3.28a. q(k) is the quantization
error.
 The input of the linear predictor of Figure 3.28a is mq (k )  mˆ (k )  eq (k )  m(k )  q (k ) ,
which represents a quantized version of the input sample m(k).
 If the prediction is well performed, then the variance of e(k) will be much smaller than
the variance of m(k), which results into a smaller number of levels to quantize e(k).
 The receiver as given by Figure 3.28b, consists of a decoder which produces eq(k), that is
added to the output of a prediction filter identical to the one used in the transmitter. The
result is the quantized message signal mq(k).
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 Differential PCM (Continued)
 DPCM includes DM as a special case, where the prediction filter is a simple delay
element. Simply put, DM is a one-bit version of DPCM.
 The problem of slope-overload distortion may also arise in DPCM, whenever the
slope of the message signal changes too rapidly for the prediction filter to track it.
 The noise performance of DPCM is measured, as in other digital modulation
systems, by the output signal-to-quantization noise, given by

2
 
2
  2 
( SNR )o  M2   M2  E   G ( SNR )
Q   E   2  p Q
 Q 
where 2M , Q2 , and 2E are the variances of m(k), q(k), and e(k), respectively.
 The factor Gp is the processing gain produced by the DPCM quantization scheme.
When Gp>1, which is the case most of the time, it represents the gain in SNR
obtained by using DPCM compared to PCM.
 The receiver as given by Figure 3.28b, consists of a decoder which produces eq(k),
that is added to the output of a prediction filter identical to the one used in the
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transmitter. The result is the quantized message signal mq(k).
 Figure 3.28
DPCM system. (a)
Transmitter. (b)
Receiver.

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 Adaptive DPCM
 In PCM, the standard bit rate is 64 kbits/s. The aim of all the variants of
PCM is to reduce the number of bits used in the encoding process by
removing redundancies.
 Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) is a scheme that permits the coding of speech
(voice) signals at 32 kbits/s through the combined use of adaptive
quantization and adaptive prediction.
 Adaptive quantization refers to a quantizer that operates with a time-
varying step-size (k )  ˆ M (k ) and adaptive prediction filter refers to a filter
with time-varying coefficients.  is a constant and ˆ M (k ) is an estimate of
the standard deviation of m(k).
 In ADPCM adaptive quantization can be performed using adaptive
quantization with forward estimation (AQF) or adaptive quantization with
backward
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 Adaptive DPCM (Continued)
 In ADPCM adaptive prediction can be performed using adaptive prediction with
forward estimation (APF) or adaptive prediction with backward estimation
(APB).

 AQF and APF use unquantized samples of the input message signal to estimate
M and the predictor coefficients w, respectively.
 AQB and APB use quantized samples of the input message signal to estimate M
and the predictor coefficients w, respectively.

 Both AQF and APF suffer from the same disadvantages, which are the buffering,
the side (extra) information to be transmitted, and the delay. But by using AQB
and APB these disadvantages are eliminated.
 Figure 3.29 shows the AQB scheme and Figure 3.30 shows the APB scheme.
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 Adaptive quantization with backward estimation (AQB).

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 Adaptive prediction with backward estimation (APB).

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 Line Encoding Techniques

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 Digital Data, Digital Signals
[the technique used in a number of LANs]

• Digital signal – is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous

voltage pulses.
• Bit duration : the time it takes for the transmitter to emit the
bit.
• Issues
• Bit timing
• Recovery from signal
• Noise immunity

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 ON-OFF Coding
1  Positive Voltage
0  NO Voltage

Let Data: 01101

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 Bipolar Signaling /Non Return to Zero
Equal Positive & Negative Amplitude Voltage are represented

1  Positive Voltage
0  Negative Voltage

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 Return to Zero (RZ)
1  Half Pulse width Rectangle is used for symbol ‘1’
0  No Voltage

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 Split Phase or Manchester encoding
1  For Symbol ‘1’ with Positive pulse followed by negative pulse
with both pulses being of equal amplitude and half-symbol wide.
0  For Symbol ‘0’ the Polarities of these pulses are reversed.
(Negative pulse followed by Positive pulse)

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 Differential Encoding
1  No Transition for Symbol ‘1’
0  Transition for Symbol ‘0’ based on the Reference Bit at Starting.

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 Bit rate and Baud Rate

 Bit rate (R) : It is number of bits per second

Baud Rate ( r): It is number of Symbols per second
If ‘n’ indicates number of bits/symbol r = R/n
The total number of symbols L= 2n
Band width = 1/ Minimum Pulse Width Possible Band
width = 1/Tb=Rb

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Prob1 :
An analog signal carries 4 bits/symbol elements. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, Find bit rate and total number of elements.
Sol: n=4 bits/symbol elements
r= 1000 signal elements /second Bit Rate R= nr
=4x1000 =4kbps
The total number of elements L= 2n=24 =16

Prob2 :
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements
are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements do we need?

Sol: R= 8000bps r= 1000

baud n=?
L=?
n= R/r = 8000/1000 =8 bits/element
L= 2n =28=256

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 Non-Uniform Quantization
• In non-uniform quantization, the step size is not fixed. It varies according to certain law or
as per input signal amplitude. The following fig shows the characteristics of Nonuniform
quantizer.

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 Companding PCM System
 Non-uniform quantizers are difficult to make and expensive.
 An alternative is to first pass the speech signal through nonlinearity before quantizing
with a uniform quantizer.
 The nonlinearity causes the signal amplitude to be compressed.
 At the receiver, the signal is expanded by an inverse to the nonlinearity.
 The process of compressing and expanding is called Companding.

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 Companding
This is a non-linear technique / Companding used in PCM which compresses
the data at the transmitter and expands the same data at the receiver. The
effects of noise and crosstalk are reduced by using this technique.

There are two types of Companding techniques. They are

1) A-law Companding Technique
2) µ-law Companding Technique

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µ-law Companding Technique.

µ-law Companding is continuous in nature

Uniform quantization is achieved at µ = 0, where the characteristic curve
is linear and no compression is done.
µ-law has mid-tread at the origin.
µ-law companding is used for speech and music signals.
µ-law is used in North America and Japan.

A-law Companding Technique

Uniform quantization is achieved at A=1, where the characteristic curve is

linear and no compression is done.
A-law has mid-rise at the origin.
A-law companding is used for PCM telephone systems.
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 μ-Law Companding:

The Input and Output Relationship is given by

A- L aw Companding:

The Input and Output Relationship is given by

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 µ-law Companding Technique
For given value of µ ,reciprocal slope of compression curve
defines Quantum steps
dx/dy = log(1+µ)/µ
= 1+µ|x|
A-law Companding Technique:
For given value of A ,reciprocal slope of compression curve
defines Quantum steps
dx/dy = (1+logA)/A 0≤|x|≤1/A
= (1+logA)|x| 1/A≤|x|≤1

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 Thank You
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