Module 2

Concept of sampling

 The process of converting continuous time

signals into equivalent discrete time signals,
can be termed as Sampling. A certain
instant of data is continually sampled in the
sampling process.
 The following figure shows a continuous-time
signal x(t) and the corresponding sampled
signal xs(t). When x(t) is multiplied by a
periodic impulse train, the sampled
signal xs(t) is obtained.
 A sampling signal is a periodic train of
pulses, having unit amplitude, sampled at
equal intervals of time Ts)Ts, which is called
as sampling time. This data is transmitted
at the time instants Ts and the carrier signal
is transmitted at the remaining time
Sampling Theorem
 The sampling theorem states that, “a
signal can be exactly reproduced if it is
sampled at the rate fs, which is greater than
or equal to twice the maximum frequency of
the given signal fm.”
 fs≥2fm
 Fs—sampling frequency
 Fm – signal frequency
Nyquist rate
 The sampling rate is equal to twice the
maximum frequency of the given signal fm,
then it is called as Nyquist rate

 fs≥2fm
Aliasing

We can observe from the above pattern that there is

over-lapping of information, which leads to mixing up
and loss of information. This unwanted phenomenon of
over-lapping is called as Aliasing
Analog pulse modulation
techniques.
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation
 Pulse Width Modulation
 Pulse Position Modulation
Pulse modulation
 In Pulse modulation methods, the carrier is
no longer a continuous signal but consists
of a pulse train. Some parameter of which is
varied according to the instantaneous value
of the modulating signal
 Modulation
 Pulse Analog Modulation
 PAM, PPM & PWM
 Pulse Digital Modulation
 PCM, DPCM, DM & ADM
PAM
 The amplitude of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is
varied in accordance with the modulating signal, that is
amplitude of the pulses depends on the value of m(t)
during the time of pulse.
Flat top PAM
 The Flat-top PAM is most popular and is
widely used. The reason for using Flat-top
PAM is that during the transmission, the
noise interferes with the top of the
transmitted pulses and this noise can be
easily removed if the PAM pulse as Flat-top.
•
In natural samples PAM signal, the pulse has
varying top in accordance with the signal
variation. Such type of pulse is received at the
receiver, it is always contaminated by noise. Then
it becomes quite difficult to determine the shape
of the top of the pulse and thus amplitude
detection of the pulse is not exact
Advantages f PAM
It is the simple and simple process for
modulation and demodulation •
 Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple

and easy to construct

Drawback of PAM
 The bandwidth required for the transmission of a
PAM signal is very large in comparison to the
maximum frequency present in the modulating
signal. •
 Since the amplitude of the PAM pulses varies in
accordance with the modulating signal therefore
the interference of noise is maximum in a PAM
signal. This noise cannot be removed easily.
 Since the amplitude of the PAM pulses varies,
therefore, this also varies the peak power
required by the transmitter with modulating
signal.
PTM
 In pulse time modulation, amplitude of
pulse is held constant, whereas position of
pulse or width of pulse is made proportional
to the amplitude of signal at the sampling
instant.
 There are two types of pulse time

modulation.
 i. Pulse Width Modulation
 ii. Pulse Position Modulation
Pulse width modulation
 In PWM, Width of the pulses of the carrier
pulse train is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal.
Advantages
Noise is less, since in PWM, amplitude is
held constant. •
 Signal and noise separation is very easy •
 PWM communication does not required

synchronization between transmitter and

receiver.
disadvantages
In PWM, pulses are varying in width and
therefore their power contents are variable
this requires that the transmitter must be
able to handle the power content of the
pulse having maximum pulse width. •
 Large bandwidth is required for the PWM as

compared to PAM
Pulse position modulation

 In PPM, the position of the pulse relative to

its un-modulated time occurrence is varied
in accordance with the message signal.
Advantages
 Like PWM, in PPM, amplitude is held
constant thus less noise interference. •

 Signal and noise separation is very easy •

 Because of constant pulse widths and

amplitudes, transmission power for each

pulse is same
Disadvantages
Synchronization between transmitter and
receiver is required. •
 Large bandwidth is required for the PPM as

compared to PAM
 Amplitude of the pulse is proportional to the amplitude of modulating
signal
 Width of the pulse is proportional to amplitude of modulating signal.
 The relative position of the pulse is proportional to the amplitude of
modulating signal.
 2 The bandwidth of the transmission channel depends on width of the
pulse Bandwidth of transmission channel depends on rise time of the
pulse. Bandwidth of transmission channel depends on rise time of the
pulse. 3 The instantaneous power of the transmitter varies with
amplitude of pulses. The instantaneous power of the transmitter varies
with width of pulses The instantaneous power of the transmitter
remains constant with width of pulses. 6/5/2020 Prof.Ch.Srinivasa Rao -
JNTUK - UCEV 45 S. No PAM PWM/PDM PPM 4 Noise interference is high
Noise interference is minimum Noise interference is minimum 5
System is complex Simple is implement Simple is implement 6 Similar
to Amplitude modulation Similar to frequency modulation Simple to
Phase modulation
PAM PWM PPM
Amplitude of the Width of the pulse is The relative position
pulse is proportional proportional to of the pulse is
to the amplitude of amplitude of proportional to the
modulating signal modulating signal. amplitude of
modulating signal.

The bandwidth of the Bandwidth of Bandwidth of

transmission channel transmission channel transmission channel
depends on width of depends on rise time depends on rise time
the pulse of the pulse. of the pulse

The instantaneous The instantaneous The instantaneous

power of the power of the power of the
transmitter varies transmitter varies transmitter remains
with amplitude of with width of pulses constant with width of
pulses. pulses.
PAM PWM PPM
Noise interference is Noise interference is Noise interference is
high minimum minimum
System is complex Simple is implement Simple is implement

Similar to Amplitude Similar to frequency Similar to phase

modulation modulation modulation
Digital carrier modulation
scheme
 Amplitude shift keying-ASK
 Frequency shift keying – FSK
 Phase shift Keying -PSK
Amplitude shift keying
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation
technique in which the frequency of the carrier signal
varies according to the discrete digital changes. FSK is a
scheme of frequency modulation.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation
technique in which the phase of the carrier signal is
changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a
particular time. PSK technique is widely used for
wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations,
along with RFID and Bluetooth communications
Digital communication
system
 Low Pass Filter
 This filter eliminates the high frequency components
present in the input analog signal which is greater
than the highest frequency of the message signal, to
avoid aliasing of the message signal.
 Sampler
 This is the technique which helps to collect the
sample data at instantaneous values of message
signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The
sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest
frequency component W of the message signal, in
accordance with the sampling theorem.
 Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and
confining the data. The sampled output when given to
Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and compresses the
value.
 Encoder
 The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It
designates each quantized level by a binary code. The
sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. These
three sections LPF,Sampler,andQuantizer will act as an analog
to digital converter. Encoding minimizes the bandwidth used.
 Regenerative Repeater
 This section increases the signal strength. The output of the
channel also has one regenerative repeater circuit, to
compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the signal, and also
to increase its strength.
Quantization
 n the PCM process, it is possible to digitise
all forms of analog data, including music,
telemetry, voice, full-motion video. To
obtain a pulse code modulated waveform
from an analog waveform at the transmitter
end and to convert the message signal into
the binary form, a process known as
quantization
PCM signal
 Band limiting (using LPF)
 Sampling
 Quantizing
 Encoding
Antenna
 An antenna is a device that provides a transition
between guided electromagnetic waves in wires
and electromagnetic waves in free space.
 An antenna can be a length of wire, a metal rod,
or a piece of metal tubing. 
 Antennas radiate most effectively when their
length is directly related to the wavelength of the
transmitted signal. 
 Most antennas have a length that is some
fraction of a wavelength. 
 One-half and one-quarter wavelengths are most
common.
Need for antenna
 As signal in free space propagates in the
form of an electromagnetic wave then it
requires some transmitting as well as
receiving ends.
Functions of antenna
 It is a transducer-
 Impedance matching device
 Radiator and sensor
 coupler
Types of antenna
 Physical structure
 frequency range
 Mode of application
Parameter of antenna
 Radiation pattern
 Radiation intensity
 Directivity
 Input impedance
 Efficiency and power gain
 Bandwidth
 Effective length
 Effective aperture
Reciprocity.
 Antennas can usually handle transition in
both directions (transmitting and receiving
EM waves). This property is called
reciprocity.

Polarization of antenna
 The polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation of the
electric field it produces.  Polarization is important because
the receiving antenna should have the same polarization as the
transmitting antenna to maximize received power.
 Horizontal Polarization 
 Vertical Polarization 
 Circular Polarization 
 Electric and magnetic field rotate at the frequency of the
transmitter 
 Used when the orientation of the receiving antenna is
unknown
 Will work for both vertical and horizontal antennas 
 Right Hand Circular Polarization (RHCP) 
 Left Hand Circular Polarization (LHCP) 
 Both antennas must be the same orientation
Wavelength
 You may recall from physics that wavelength ()
and frequency (f ) of an electromagnetic wave in
free space are related by the speed of light (c) 
 C=f λ
  The dimensions of an antenna are usually
expressed in terms of wavelength 
 Low frequencies imply long wavelengths, hence
low frequency antennas are very large.
 High frequencies imply short wavelengths,
hence high frequency antennas are usually
small.
Isotropic antenna
 Let’s start by looking at the radiation
pattern of an isotropic point source.  Power
from an isotropic point source is equally
distributed in all directions  It is completely
unfocused.
Antenna gain
 Antenna gain (G)  Antenna is a passive
device, the power radiated can not be
greater than the input power. 
 The ability of an antenna to focus electro-

magnetic energy is defined by its gain.

  Antenna gain is expressed as a ratio of the

effective radiated output power (Pout) to the

input power (Pin) 
 The gain of an antenna is a measure of

power transmitted relative to that

transmitted by an isotropic source.
Effective Radiated Power
Effective Radiated Power  The effective
radiated power (ERP or EIRP) is the gain of
an antenna (with respect to an isotropic
radiator) multiplied by its input power. 
 For example, a highly directional antenna

with a gain of 7 has an input power of 1-kW.

Its ERP is therefore 7 kW.
Radiation pattern
 Radiation pattern of any antenna Is the
shape of the Electro-magnetic field radiated
or Received by the antenna
Dipole Antenna
 Dipole Antenna  One of the most widely
used antenna types is the half-wave dipole.
 The half-wave dipole, also called a
doublet, is formally known as the Hertz
antenna.  A dipole antenna is two pieces of
wire, rod, or tubing that are one-quarter
wavelength long at the operating resonant
frequency
conical antenna
 A common way to increase bandwidth is to
use a version of the dipole antenna known as
the conical antenna. 
 The center radiation resistance of a conical

antenna is much higher than the 73 Ω usually

found when straight-wire or tubing
conductors are used. 
 The primary advantage of conical antennas is

their tremendous bandwidth. 

 They can maintain a constant impedance and

gain over a 4:1 frequency range.

Marconi antenna
 Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna 
The quarter-wavelength vertical antenna,
also called a Marconi antenna is widely
used. 
 It is similar in operation to a vertically

mounted dipole antenna. 

 The Marconi antenna is half the length of a

dipole antenna.
Types of antenna
Radiation pattern of
antenna
Microwave antenna
Microstrip antenna
 Frequency
 Wavelength
 Impedance matching
 VSWR & reflected power
 Bandwidth
 Percentage bandwidth
 Radiation intensity
Necessity of Matching

 A resonant device is one, which gives better output at

certain narrow band of frequencies. Antennas are
such resonant devices whose impedance if matched,
delivers a better output.
 The power radiated by an antenna, will be effectively
radiated, if the antenna impedance matches the free
space impedance.
 For a receiver antenna, antenna’s output impedance
should match with the input impedance of the receiver
amplifier circuit.
 For a transmitter antenna, antenna’s input impedance
should match with transmitter amplifier’s output
impedance, along with the transmission line impedance.
Voltage Standing Wave
Ratio(VSWR)
 The ratio of the maximum voltage to the
minimum voltage in a standing wave is
known as Voltage Standing Wave Ratio.”
 he higher the impedance mismatch, the

higher will be the value of VSWR.

Radiation intensity
 “Radiation intensity is defined as the
power per unit solid angle”
 Radiation emitted from an antenna which is

more intense in a particular direction,

indicates the maximum intensity of that
antenna. The emission of radiation to a
maximum possible extent is nothing but the
radiation intensity.
 U=r*r*W
Radiation Pattern
Radiation pattern of microstrip
antenna
Isotropic antenna
 An isotropic antenna is defined as a
hypothetical antenna having the same
radiation in all directions (i.e., uniform
radiation). It is assumed that the
power gain of an isotropic antenna is 1.0
Radiation pattern
Micro wave antenna
 micro strip patch antenna
 Horn antenna
 Parabolic antenna
 Plasma antenna
 MIMO antenna
 Micro strip antennas are low-profile
antennas. A metal patch mounted at a
ground level with a di-electric material in-
between constitutes a Micro strip or Patch
Antenna. These are very low size antennas
having low radiation
 Above 100MHz
Micro strip antenna
The radiation pattern of microstrip or patch antenna is broad.
It has low radiation power and narrow frequency bandwidth.
Advantages
 Light weight
 Low cost
 Ease of installation

Dis-advantages
 Inefficient radiation

 Narrow frequency bandwidth

Applications
 Used in Space craft applications

 Used in Air craft applications

 Used in Low profile antenna applications

The Horn antenna or Microwave Horn is an antenna consisting
of a waveguide whose end walls are flared outside to form a
megaphone like structure, as shown in the below figure. These
horns are widely used as antennas at ultra-high frequencies
and microwave frequencies that are well above 300 MHz.
A parabola antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic
reflector, a curved surface with cross sectional shape of a
parabola to direct the radio waves. The shape of the antenna
is in the form of a dish; therefore, it is popularly known as dish
antenna or parabolic dish. High directivity is the main
advantage of the parabolic antenna.