Computer Science (Paper-II)

5. Networking Technology

 Network /Computer Network

A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices which
can share resources and services.

 Networking
- The concept of sharing resources and Services is called Networking.
- Resources can be data Scanner, a modem and a printer, and
- Services can be e-mail service databases etc.
- All the systems connected through a pathway called as transmission media.
- Transmission media uses a set of communication rule called as Protocols.

 Transmission media
Transmission media is a pathway through which systems are connected and also it
is used to transmit electronic signals (Binary pulses i.e. on/off) from one computer to
another.

 Transmission of data
Transmission media transmit Binary pulses i.e, electronic signals through
frequencies. Different media are used for different frequencies.

 The frequencies used to transmit data or signals

- There are three types frequencies used to transmit data or signals
1. Radio frequency
2. Infrared Light Frequency
3. Microwave frequency

1. Radio frequency:-
It uses for short distance i.e. it is used in local area network i.e. LAN and transmit
data using twisted pair or co-axial cable.

2. Infrared Light Frequency:-

It uses for short distance, within 100 feet and transmit data using Fiber-optic cable.
eg:- Remote control of T.V uses infrared light frequency.

3. Microwave frequency:-
It uses for long distance. ie it is used to transmit data between earth stations and
between earth stations and satellites. It transmits data using fiber optic cable.

 Transmission media characteristics

1) Cost 2) Installation Requirement 3) Band width
4) Band usage 5) EMI 6) Attenuation
1) Cost:-
Cost is important factor to purchase transmission media. If you want fastest then it will be
more expensive. Network designer suggest inexpensive and strong.

2) Installation Requirement:-
Some transmission media you can install at home but some needs. Skilled person so it
increases cost of network and also takes some time to install.

3) Band width:-
A Band width is the capacity of medium to transmit data (bits) per
Second. If an network transmit 20 million bits per second then its band width will be
20mbps (megabits per second)

4) Band Usage: -
Band usage means band uses by network i.e Base Band or Broad Band.
Base band uses only one Communication channel whereas broad band uses multiple
communication channel

5) Attenuation :-
Attenuation is used to measure how much signals becomes weak when it travels through a
medium. Here, Repeaters are used to regenerate signals.

6) Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):-

EMI means outsider disturbance which affects the signals in a medium.
eg:- cross talk (it occurs when signal from one wire is picked by another wire.)

 Multiplexing
Multiplexing means combining multiple data channels for transmission on a common
medium.

 De-multiplexing
De-multiplexing means recovering the original separate channel from a multiplexed signal.

 Multiplexing useful under following conditions/circumstances

- When media band width is costly.
- When band width is idle.
- When large amount of data must be transmitted through low capacity channels.

 Types of multiplexing
- There are two types of multiplexing:
1. FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
2. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
 1. FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing):-
- The technique of dividing bandwidth into frequency bands is called frequency
division multiplexing (FDM))
- FDM works only with analog signals.
- In FDM all data channels are converted to analog form.
- Each analog signal is modulated by a separate frequency called carrier frequency. At
receiving end the de-multiplexer can select signal and recovers the data signal.
- In FDM bidirectional signaling is also possible on same cable.

Fig. Frequency Division Multiplexing

2. TDM (Time Division multiplexing)

- TDM divides a channel into time slots that are allocated to the data streams to be
transmitted.
- TDM Works with digital signals.
- For recovering original data signals the sender and receiver should agree on time
slots.

Fig. Time Division Multiplexing

 Types of transmission media

I. Cable(Wired) Media/Bounded/Guided transmission media
II. Wireless Media/Unbounded/Unguided transmission media
I. Cable (Wired) Media/Bounded/Guided transmission media:-
In this group media is used for short distance communication by laying a wire or
cable hence called physical bounded media. Bounded media are also called cable
media. There are three types of cable media are available for communication as
shown below:
1. Co-axial cable
2. Twisted pair cable
3. Fiber optic cable

1. Coaxial cable:-
Coaxial cable has two conductors sharing common axis.

 Components of coaxial cable

Coaxial cable consists of a center conductor, an outer conductor, an insulator,
and a plastic Jacket.
- A center Conductor :-
This is a solid copper wire. It is used to transmit signals.
- An outer conductor:-
This is braided wires, metallic foil or both form a tube surrounding the
center conductor.
It is also called as shield which protects center conductor from EMI.
- An insulator layer:-
It separates the outer conductor from center conductor.
- A plastic Jacket -
It is a plastic coating which protect cable from damage.

Fig. Coaxial cable

 Types of co-axial cable

There are two types of co-axial cable
i. Thinnet
ii. Thicknet

i. Thinnet Co-axial cable:-

- It is 0.25 inches in thickness or diameter.
- It is light and flexible
- It is inexpensive and easy to install.
- It transmit signal for 185 meters.
 ii. Thicknet co-axial cable:-
- It is 0.5 inches in thickness or diameter.
- It is thick & does not bend.
- It is expensive than thinnet and it is difficult to work with thicknet.
- It transmit signal for 500 meters.

 Procedure for installing co-axial cable

- Connect all devices with T-connector.
- Attach terminal / terminator to one end of Cable.
- The terminator consists of a resistance. The resistor prevents signals from
interference means because of resistor when signals reach the end of cable
they bounce back.

 Connectors used with Co-axial cable

i. BNC-Connector
- It is British Naval connector uses twist lock.
ii. T-connector
- It also uses twist lock, and connected with BNC Connector.
iii. N- Connector
- It uses screw to connect rather than twist lock.

2. Twisted pair cable:-

- It consists of two strands of copper wire twisted together.
- Twisting reduces the sensitivity of the cable to EMI.
- It has two category i.e. shielded twisted pair cable and unshielded twisted
pair cable.

Fig. Twisted pair cable

 Types of twisted pair cable

There are two types of twisted pair cable.
i. Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)
ii. Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)

i. Shielded twisted pair cable (STP):-

- It consists of one or more twisted pair of cables enclosed in a foil wrap
and woven copper shielding.
- Shield is connected to the ground portion of the electronic device to
which cable is connected
- A properly grounded shield prevents signal from getting into or out of
the cable.
 Fig. Shielded twisted pair cable

 Characteristics/Properties of shielded twisted pair cable (STP)

- Cost:-
Cost of STP Cable is more than UTP and thinnet co-axial cable but
less than thicknet co-axial cable and fiber optic cable.

- Installation:-
Different types of connectors are used to install STP. and also
different network type have different installation. Need skilled
person to install.

- Capacity:-
STP cable has a theoretical capacity of 500mbps but practically it
is 155mbps for 100 meter.

- Attenuation:-
STP cables attenuation limit is 100 meter.

- EMI:-
STP cable have good EMI Characteristic because of shield.

ii. Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP):-

- It consists of one or more twisted pair of cables enclosed in a jacket.
- It does not have shield into its structure.
- The characteristic of UTP is similar to STP only attenuation and EMI
difference.

Fig. Unshielded twisted pair cable

  Characteristics/Properties of unshielded twisted pair cable
(UTP)
- Cost:-
UTP cable is inexpensive than any Cable Only Category 5 cable is
high.

- Installation:-
The equipment required to install UTP cable is low cost. Easy to
install.

- Capacity:-
UTP cable has 100 mbps data transmission capacity.

- Attenuation:-
UTP cables attenuation limit is 100 meter.

- EMI:-
UTP is more sensitive to EMI.

 Types of UTP cable/Categories of UTP Cable

i. Categories 1:-
This cable works with analogue signals and suitable for voice and
its speed is 4mbps.
ii. Categories 2:-
This cable works with digital signals and suitable for voice and its
speed is 4mbps.
iii. Category 3:-
This cable works with digital signals and four twisted pair cables
with three twist per foot and its speed is 10mbps.
iv. Category 4:-
This cable works with digital signals also uses four twisted pair
cables and its speed is 16 mbps.
v. Category 5:-
This cable works with digital signals also uses four twisted pair
cables and its speed is 100mbps

3. Fiber optic cable:-

- Fiber optic cable is ideal cable for data transmission for long distance.
- It has extremely high bandwidth.
- It transmits light signals instead of electrical signals, so it has no problem
with EMI.
- It is costly and difficult to install

 Component of fiber optic cable

Fiber optic cable consists of a center conductor, a cladding and a jacket.
 - A center conductor:-
It is made up from highly refined glass or plastic. It is used to transmit
light signals on longer distance. A center conductor is also called as fiber
core, which is coated with cladding.
- A cladding:-
It reduces signal loss by reflecting signals back into fiber.
- A jacket:-
It gives protection to cable.

 Characteristics/Properties of fiber optic cable

- Cost:-
It is expensive than any other cable.

- Installation:-
It is difficult to install so, skilled person is required to install fiber optic
cable. The cable cannot be stretched.

- Capacity:-
- It supports high data rates up to 200,000 mbps and 100 mbps for several
Kilometers.

- Attenuation :-
Attenuation is much lower than other cables.

- EMI:-
It is free from EMI or it is not sensitive to EMI because it transfer light
signals instead electric signals.

II. Wireless Media/Unbounded/Unguided transmission media

In this communication happens without wire. Wireless communication has extra
ordinary convenience.

 Types of wireless network

There are the basic types of wireless network
1. Wireless LAN:- one or more wireless network.
2. Extended LAN:- A wireless connection between two LANS.
3. Mobile computing :- A mobile machine connecting to home network.

 Wireless networks are useful in following situations

- Spaces where caballing is impossible eg:- older building, Historical buildings etc.
- People who move around a lot in work area.
- To set temporary installation.
- Satellite offices, ships in ocean.
- Teams in remote field that need to be connected to main office.
  Transmission methods of wireless network
1. Infrared:-
- In this type of transmission infrared rays are used for transmission of signals.
- It uses for short distance limited within 100 feet and supports 10 mbps
speed. eg:- Remote control of T.V uses infrared light frequency.

2. Laser:-
- In this type of transmission laser rays are used for transmission of signals.
- In this transceiver and receiver should be in straight line.
- This is useful for LAN and WAN.

3. Narrow band radio:-

- In this type of transmission, a single frequency is used for transmission.
- Its range is greater than infrared.
- No need to put transceiver and receiver in straight line.

4. Microwave:-
- It uses for long distance. i.e. it is used to transmit data between earth stations
and between earth stations and satellites.
- Microwave transmission can take two forms:
i. Terrestrial link
ii. Satellite link

i. Terrestrial link:-
- In terrestrial microwave communication both transceiver and
receiver are earth based.
- Telephone relay tower uses this type of communication.
- It uses frequencies 4-6 GHZ and 21-23 GHZ.

ii. Satellite link:-

- Satellite microwave System uses communication satellites.
- Satellites are 22300 miles above the earth and it located at fixed point
on earth. Earth stations uses satellite dishes to communicate with
satellite. These satellites then transmit signals in narrow or broad
beams.
- It uses frequencies 11-14 GHZ.
- It's cost is extremely high.
- Its speed is 1-10 mbps.
- Microwave signals are sensitive to EMI.
- Attenuation depends on frequency, power and atmospheric
conditions.

 Access method
Access method is a set of rules governing how the network nodes share the
transmission medium or It is rules and regulation of transmission of data on network.
 Types of access method
1. Contention based access method
2. Polling access method
3. Token ring passing access method
4. Demand priority access method

1. Contention based access method:-

- Contention means that the computers are contending for use of the transmission
medium.
- It fallows first come first serve rule, means any computer can transmit at any
time.
- When two computers transmit at the Same time then collision occurs.
- When network is busy, the collision occurs several times.
- Collisions can be minimized by using certain mechanisms.
- Following are the mechanisms used to avoid collision
i. Carrier sensing mechanism
ii. Carrier detection mechanism

i. Carrier sensing mechanism:-

It uses 'Listen before talking" strategy to transmit data. In this system each
computer listens to the network before transmission. If network is busy it
waits until network quiets downs.

ii. Carrier detection mechanism:-

In this type computers continues to listen to the network as they transmit." If
computer detects another signal that interferes with the signal it is sending,
then it stops transmitting. Both computers then wait random amount of time
and attempt to transmit.

Fig. Contention based access method

2. Polling access method:-
In palling access method one master device or controller is used to poll other
devices on the network to see whether they are ready to transmit or receive
data. eg:- When computer polls printer to receive a print job.
- This method is not widely used because polling can cause network traffic i.e
collision.

Fig. Polling access method

3. Token ring passing access method:-

- It uses frame called token.
- Token circulates around the network computer that needs to transmit must wait
until it receives the token when computer receives token, it is permitted to
transmit when computer completes transmission it passes the token frame to
the next station on token ring network.

Fig. Token ring passing access method

4. Demand priority access method:-

- It is uses contention based access method.
- In this all network nodes attached to hubs and they are connected to other hub.
Here priority can be assigned to data if contention occurs at hub the high
priority takes precedence.
 Fig. Demand priority access method

 Topology:-
- Topology means arrangement of nodes, cables, and connectivity devices to design
network.
- There are two basic types of network topologies
1. Physical topology
2. Logical topology

1. Physical topology:-
- It is actual layout of the network transmission media.
- It defines the way the network look.

2. Logical topology:-
- It is the logical pathway of signal from which it passes through network
nodes.
- It defines the data passes among the nodes.

 Physical and Logical topologies can take several forms.

The most common are:-
i. Bus Topalogy
ii. Ring Topology
iii. Star Topalogy
iv. Mesh Topology

i. Bus topology :-
- In Bus topology all devices are connected to a common, shared cable.
This shared cable is called backbone of network
- This topology is suited for network which uses contention-based
access method.
 - Most of the bus networks transmit signals in both the direction, so all
devices or nodes can receive signals directly.
- Some buses are unidirectional and signals travel only in one direction
and can reach only downstream devices.
- Each end of bus is terminated with terminator.
- Terminator is used to prevent signals from reflecting back.

Fig. Bus topology

 Advantages:-
- Easy to implement and extend.
- Well suited for temporary network.
- Less expensive than other topologies.

 Disadvantages:-
- Difficult to troubleshoot.
- Limited Cable Length & number of stations.
- If there is problem with cable entire network is affected.

ii. Ring Topology:-

- Ring topologies are wired in circle. Each node is connected to its
neighbors on either side and data passes around the ring in one
direction only.
- Each device work as transmitter as well as receiver and serves as a
repeater that passes the signal onto the next device in the ring.
- This topology is suited for Token passing access methods.
- The Token passes around the ring and the only node that hold the
token can transmit data.

Fig. Ring topology

  Advantages:-
- Cable failure affects limited users.
- Each node has equal access speed to the ring equal access for all
users.

 Disadvantages:-
- Costly wiring is required.
- Need expensive adapted cards.
- Difficult connection.

iii. Star topology :-

- In star topology all devices are connected to central attachment point
called hub.
- The hub receives signals and transmit proper destination them to
proper destination.

Fig. Star topology

 Advantages:-
- Adding new device is easy than Bus & Ring topology.
- Control is centralized due to hub.
- One bad cable does not affect entire network, only machine
connected to bad cable gets affected.
- We can increase work area using parent and child hub hierarchy.

 Disadvantages:-
- Hub failure affects all users.
- Hubs are slightly expensive.
- Require more cabling than Bus or Ring, it costs more.

iv. Mesh Topology: -

- A mesh topology is also called as hybrid topology. It incorporates all
topologies.
- In mesh topology every device is connected to every other device.
 Fig. Mesh topology

 Advantages:-
- Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously.
- Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present.
- Expansion and modification done without disturbing other nodes.

 Disadvantages:-
- Cost of this topology is high.
- Set-up and maintenance is difficult.
- There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network
connections.

 Network Architecture :-
- Network architecture is the design specification of the physical layout of connected
devices.
- There are two types of network architectures
1. Ethernet architecture
2. Token ring passing architecture

1. Ethernet Architecture :-
- Ethernet is also called IEEE 802.3 standard.
- This uses contention access method.
- Ethernet network uses bus physical topology. Some Ethernet network uses
star physical and bus logical topology.
- Ethernet network transmit data in small units called frames.
- The size Ethernet frame is 64 to 1518 bytes
- The Ethernet frame contain:
 Preamble: signifies the beginning of frame.
 Address: source & destination address. Type assigns for the network
protocol.
 Data: Data being transmitted.
 CRC: Cylindrical redundancy check for error checking.

 Types Ethernet Topologies or Ethernet cabling

1) 10 BASE 2 2) 10 BASE 5 3) 10 BASE FL
4) 10 BASE T 5) 100 VG Any LAN 6) 100 BASE X
i. 10 BASE 2:-
Rules:-
- This uses base band with 10 mbps speed.
- This also uses thinnet co-axial cable.
- The T connector must be connected to the network adapter.
- The minimum cable distance between clients must be 1.5 feet.
- The maximum network segment limitation is of 607 feet.
- The entire network cabling cannot be more than 3035 feet.
- This should not be more the 5-segments.
- Each end should be terminated with 50 ohm terminator.

Fig.10 Base 2 Ethernet topology

ii. 10 BASE 5:-

Rules:-
- This uses base band with 100 mbps speed.
- This uses an external transceiver for connecting network adapter
card.
- The minimum cable distance between transceivers is 0.5 meters.
- The minimum cable distance between clients must be 8 feet.
- The maximum network segment limitation is of 1640 feet.
- The entire network cabling cannot be more than 8200 feet.
- Transceiver Cable length cannot be more than 50 meters.
 Fig. 10 Base 5 Ethernet topology

iii. 10 BASE T:-

Rules:-
- This uses base band with 10 mbps speed.
- This also uses UTP cables (category 3.4 & 5) and STP cables.
- The minimum distance between two computers is 1.5 feet.
- The maximum length of cable segment from hub to transceiver is 328
feet.
- The minimum distance between a hub and a computer or between
two hubs is 1.5 meters.

Fig. 10 Base T Ethernet topology

iv. 10 BASE FL:-

Rules:-
- This uses base band with 10 mbps speed.
- This also uses fiber-optic cable.
 - 10 Base-FL is wired in a star topology with all of the fiber optic runs
originating from a central hub.
- This supports a maximum cabling distance is about 2000 meters
(6600 feet).
- This transfers light signals so eliminates electrical complications.

Fig. 10 Base FL Ethernet topology

v. 100 VG any LAN :-

Rules:-
- This uses 100 mbps speed.
- This uses twisted pair cables, STP or UTP(category no. 3, 4, and 5).
- This supports VG ie voice grade.
- In this computers are connected to child hubs which are connected to
parent hubs.
- The maximum length of cable connected to hub is 250 meters.

Fig. 100 VG any LAN Ethernet topology

 vi. 100 BASE X :-
Rules:-
- This is also called as fast Ethernet.
- This uses base band with 100 mbps speed.
- X means it supports multiple media types.

2. Token ring architecture :-

- Token ring uses a token passing architecture or token ring architecture.
- Each node in token ring is attached to common device called a multi station
access unit (MSAU OF MAU). Because of a single computer failure does not
stop the whole network.

 Token ring cabling:-

- This uses twisted pair cable.
- Following are standard IBM cable d for token ring days.
Type 1:-
- This uses two STP cables. Maximum cabling distance is 101 meters.
Type 2:-
- This uses six twisted pair cables,
- Two STP and UTP maximum cabling distance is 100 meters.
Type 3:-
- This uses UTP copper with a minimum of two twists per inch. The
maximum cabling distance is 45 meters.

 Passing data on token ring:-

- It uses a frame called as token. Token circulated around a network or a
token ring.

 Process of Passing data:-

- A computer in the ring captures the token.
- If computer has data to transmit, it holds the token and transmits a data
frame.
- Each computer in the ring checks to see whether it is the intended
recipient of the frame.
- When the frame reaches the destination address, the destination PC
copies frame to receive buffer, updates frame status field of the data
frame and puts frame back on the ring.
- The computer which originally sent a frame receives it from ring and
acknowledges a successful transmission, token frame off the ring, and
places the token back on the ring.
 Fig. Token ring passing architecture

 Protocol:-
- Protocol is a set of rules used to communicate computers over network.
- Computer uses protocol to transmit data but both the transceiver and receiver
computers should agree on common protocol.
- Protocol encapsulates data in packets at source and transfer packets to destination.
- The packet contains information i.e., header, data and trailer.
 Header:- It signifies start of the packet and source and destination address.
 Data:- It contains original data being transmitted
 Trailer:- It signifies end of the packet and checks error or CRC.

 Internet Protocol :-
- Internet protocol (IP) is the primary network protocol used on the internet.
- It is developed by defense department of United States in the 1970.
- IP is also called as TCP/IP ie Transmission control protocol / Internet protocol
because both TCP and IP used together.

 Types of TCP/IP protocol

1. General TCP/IP Transport protocol :-
- TCP/IP protocol stores two form address a node address and a logical
network address.
- A node address is the device address on the network and A Logical address is
the segment on the network to which node is attached.
- TCP/IP uses numbering scheme called as IP address. All devices on network
have unique IP address.
- IP address is set of four numbers, they can range in a value between o to 255
and each number is separated by period (.) operator.
eg:- 34.120.66.79
- There are Three classes address
i) Class A, ii) Class B, iii) Class C.
i. Class A:-
In this first number represent the network address and last three numbers
represent node address.
 ii. Class B:-
In this first two numbers represent network address and last two numbers
represent node address.
iii. Class C:-
In this first three numbers represent network address and last number
represent node address.

2. Internet protocol (IP):-

- IP is connectionless protocol.
- It is packet switching protocol means i it transmit data in the packet.
- It performs addressing and rented selection.
- It also performs error checking.

3. Transmission control protocol (TCP):-

- TCP is connection oriented protocol.
- It provides full duplex and to and connection.
- It maintains logical connection between sender and receiver.
- It also detects errors and corrects them.

 Connectivity devices:-
 Modems:-
- Computer stores digital data while telephone lines can transmit analog data,
modem convert digital data into analog form and vice versa.
- Converting one signal form to other is called modulation and
- Recovering original signal is called demodulation.

Fig. Modem

- Modems are classified into two categories:

i. Synchronous modems:-
- It uses clock on transmitting & receiving devices.
- Wide variety of data can be transmitted.
- A long series of bit can also be transmitted

ii. Asynchronous modems:-

- It is not uses clock for transmission, It uses bit synchronization.
- It is used to transmit character data.
- It transmits short messages.
 Hubs:-
- Hub is a central attachment point.
- All devices attached to hubs.

Fig. Hub

- Hubs are of three types:-

i) Passive hub ii) Active hub iii) Switching hub

i. Passive hubs:-
- It is used to combine signals from several network cable segments.
- It does not process data.
- It simply accepts signals and forwards them to receiver.

ii. Active hubs:-

- It amplifies and clean up signals means it regenerate signals.
- The process of cleaning up is called as signal regeneration.

iii. Switching hubs:-

- It routes signal between ports Hub.
- It can be used in place of routers because this hub accepts signal from
transmitter then it performs routing.

 Repeater:-
- It repeats signal from one port to another port. It regenerates a signal.
- Repeater helps to increase/extend the length of network.
- Repeater amplifies signal from transmitter then sends to receiver.
- If different cable media or wireless media i.e. different transmission media is
used in n/w then repeater is used because repeater connects different types of
transmission media.
 Fig. Repeater

- There are two types of repeaters:

i) Amplifiers ii) Signal Regenerating

i. Amplifier:-
- This type of repeaters used to amplify entire incoming signals along with
noise signals.

ii. Signal Regenerating:-

- It amplifies only data signals but it does not amplify noise signals or weak
signals.
- It only clean up electronic signals. The process of cleaning up electronic
signals is known as signal regeneration or reshape.

 Router:-
- It routes signal means it determines logical pathway.
- Routers can use network address for delivering message.
- Delivering packets according to logical network address is called routing.
- Routers are intelligent. They can use algorithms to determine most efficient path
for sending data or packet to any network.

Fig. Router

- There are two types of routers:

i) Static Reuters ii) Dynamic Routers
i. Static Routers :-
- It do not determine paths, but you need to specify them manually.

ii. Dynamic Routers:-

- It specifies paths or it has capacity to determine path.