STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1. Introduction:
● Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
● First discussed in ancient India by Maharishi Kanad ("anu").
● The word “atom” comes from Greek “atomos” = indivisible.
2. Discovery of Subatomic Particles
● Atoms are NOT indivisible – they consist of:
● Electrons (discovered by J.J. Thomson)
● Protons (E. Goldstein, named by Rutherford)
● Neutrons (James Chadwick)
3. Discovery of Electron
● J.J. Thomson (1897) used cathode ray tube.
● Rays travel from cathode (–) to anode (+).
● Electrons are negatively charged, have mass, and are deflected by
electric & magnetic fields.
4. Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron (e/m)
● Discovered by J.J. Thomson.
● e/m = 1.7588 × 10¹¹ C/kg
5. Charge on Electron (Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment)
● R.A. Millikan (1909) determined the magnitude of charge:
● e = 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
6. Discovery of Protons and Neutrons
Protons (by canal rays by Goldstein):
● When perforated cathode was used, rays were observed in the
opposite direction of cathode rays.
● These rays are called canal rays and consist of positive ions → led
to discovery of protons.
● Properties:
○ Positively charged
○ Mass depends on the gas used
○ Deflected by electric and magnetic fields (opposite to electrons)
Neutrons:
● Discovered by: James Chadwick (1932)
Bombarded beryllium with alpha particles → emitted neutral particles.
● Mass nearly equal to proton, but no charge → named neutron.
● Present in the nucleus; stabilizes the atom by reducing electrostatic
repulsion between protons.
7. Atomic Models
(i) Thomson's Model (Plum Pudding Model)
● Atom = uniformly positive sphere with embedded electrons (like
raisins in pudding).
● Failed to explain scattering of alpha particles.
(ii) Rutherford's Nuclear Model
Gold foil experiment (alpha particle scattering).
Observations:
● Most α-particles passed undeviated → Atom is mostly empty.
● Few deflected at large angles → Positive charge concentrated in
center (nucleus).
● Very few rebounded → Dense nucleus.
Drawbacks:
● Couldn’t explain stability of atom (e⁻ spirals into nucleus).
● Couldn’t explain hydrogen spectrum.
10. Atomic Number and Mass Number
● Atomic number (Z): Number of protons.
● Mass number (A): Protons + Neutrons.
11. Isotopes, Isobars
● Isotopes: Same Z, different A (e.g., ¹H, ²H, ³H).
● Isobars: Same A, different Z (e.g., ⁴⁰Ar and ⁴⁰Ca)
12. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
Couldn’t explain the stability of atom:
● According to classical electromagnetic theory, an electron moving in a
circular orbit should emit radiation continuously.
● This would lead to loss of energy, causing the electron to spiral into
the nucleus — but this doesn’t happen.
● Failed to explain atomic spectra: Rutherford’s model didn’t justify the
presence of discrete lines in hydrogen’s spectrum.
13. Developments Leading to Bohr’s Model of Atom
Bohr introduced postulates by combining:
● Planck's quantum theory: Energy is emitted/absorbed in discrete
quantities (quanta).
● Maxwell's electromagnetic theory + Rutherford model.
Experiments that guided Bohr:
● Photoelectric Effect (Einstein): Energy of electrons depends on
frequency, not intensity.
● Atomic spectra: Discrete line spectrum → electrons exist in specific
energy states.
14. Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
Wave Nature:
● EM waves = Electric & magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to
each other.
● Key terms:
Wavelength (λ): Distance between 2 crests.
Frequency (ν): Number of waves per second.
Velocity (c) = 3 × 10⁸ m/s
c = λν
15. Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation – Planck’s Quantum
Theory
Particle Nature (Planck's Quantum Theory):
● Energy is quantized.
● E = hν, where h = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ Js
16. Photoelectric Effect (Einstein)
● Light of certain frequency ejects electrons from metal.
E = hν – φ, where φ = work function
17. Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation
● de Broglie Equation: λ = h/mv
Matter has wave-like nature (especially electrons).
18. Atomic Spectra – Line Spectra and Hydrogen Spectrum
Line spectrum: Characteristic of element.
Emission spectrum: Electron jumps to lower level → energy released.
Absorption spectrum: Electron absorbs energy and jumps to higher level.
Hydrogen Spectrum
● Explained by Bohr’s model.
● Series (UV, visible, IR):
Lyman (n=1), Balmer (n=2), Paschen (n=3), Brackett, Pfund
19. Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom
● Electrons revolve in discrete orbits.
● Angular momentum quantized: mvr = nh/2π
● Energy levels: En = –13.6/n² eV
● Radius: rn = 0.529 × n² Å
● Velocity: vn = 2.18 × 10⁶ / n cm/s
✅ Explained: Line spectrum of hydrogen
❌ Failed: Multi-electron atoms, Zeeman effect, Stark effect
20. Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
21. Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
Shortcomings of Bohr’s model:/Failed to explain:
● Failed for multi-electron systems.
● Couldn’t explain duality of electron (particle + wave).
● Spectra of multi-electron atoms
● Zeeman effect (splitting in magnetic field)
● Stark effect (splitting in electric field)
● Uncertainty principle
● Dual nature of matter
● Elliptical orbits (explained later by Sommerfeld)
Louis de Broglie:
● Proposed wave nature of electrons:
λ=h/mv
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: Δx⋅Δp≥h/4π
You can't know position and momentum of electron simultaneously with
certainty.
22. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Cannot simultaneously determine position & momentum accurately.
Δx · Δp ≥ h/4π
23. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
Based on:
● de Broglie (matter wave)
● Heisenberg’s principle
● Schrödinger’s wave equation
24. Schrödinger Wave Equation and Hydrogen Atom
● Treated electron as a wave in 3D space.
● Developed a wave equation:
H^ψ=Eψ
ψ: Wave function (gives probability of finding electron).
● ∣ψ∣^2: Probability density.
● Solution gives orbitals → energy levels + shapes.
Quantum numbers arise from this model:
● Principal (n): Size + energy level
● Azimuthal (l): Shape of orbital
● Magnetic (m): Orientation
● Spin (s): Spin of electron (+½ or -½)
25. Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
s: l = 0 (spherical),
p: l = 1 (dumbbell),
d: l = 2 (cloverleaf)
26. Shapes of s, p, d Orbitals
s-orbital: Spherical, 1 orientation
p-orbital: Dumbbell, 3 orientations (px, py, pz)
d-orbital: Clover leaf, 5 orientations
f-orbital: complex,
27. Energies of Orbitals – (n+l) Rule
● In single-electron: Energy depends only on n
● In multi-electron: Energy depends on n + l
28. Filling of Orbitals – Aufbau Principle
1. Aufbau Principle:
Fill lower (n + l) orbitals first.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle:
No two electrons can have same set of 4 quantum numbers.
3. Hund’s Rule:
Electron enters empty orbital first (maximum multiplicity).
31. Electronic Configuration of Atoms
Example:
H: 1s¹
He: 1s²
Na: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹
32. Stability of Half-filled and Completely Filled Subshells
Due to symmetry and exchange energy:
● Example: Cr = [Ar] 3d⁵ 4s¹
Cu = [Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s¹
33. Summary and Tricks to Remember
🔹
SOME POINTS:
Node and Nodal Planes
Node = region with zero probability of finding electron
🔹
s orbital has (n–1) nodes, all spherical.
Radial Probability Distribution :Graph showing where electron is most
likely to be found in a given orbital
● Total nodes = n−1
● Radial nodes = n−l−1
● angular nodes = l
Example: For 3p orbital → Total = 2, Radial = 1, Angular = 1
🌟 1. Cathode Ray Experiment (Discovery of Electrons by J.J.
Thomson)
Apparatus:
● Discharge tube (glass tube)
● High voltage (10,000V)
● Low pressure (about 1 mm Hg)
● Cathode (negative electrode), anode (positive electrode)
● Fluorescent screen
Procedure:
● A high voltage is applied across electrodes in the discharge tube at
low pressure.
● Glowing rays are observed traveling from the cathode to the anode →
called cathode rays.
Observations:
● Rays travel in straight lines.
● Cast shadows of solid objects placed in their path.
● Cause mechanical rotation of paddle wheels → hence, they carry
mass.
● Deflected by electric and magnetic fields → hence, they carry
negative charge.
Conclusion:
● Cathode rays are made up of negatively charged particles →
named electrons.
● J.J. Thomson calculated the charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of
electrons.
e/m = 1.758 × 10⁸ C/g
🌟 2. Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment (To Find Charge of Electron)
Apparatus:
● Atomizer (sprays fine oil droplets)
● Viewing microscope
● Two charged plates
● X-rays to ionize air and charge oil droplets
Procedure:
● Oil droplets are sprayed between two metal plates.
● X-rays ionize air molecules, transferring charge to oil droplets.
● By adjusting the electric field, Millikan suspended the droplet in
mid-air (net force = 0).
Formula Used:
qE=mg ⇒ q=mg/E
Observation:
● The smallest common value of charge obtained = 1.6×10−19 C
Conclusion:
● The charge on an electron is quantised and equal to −1.6×10−19 C
🌟 3. Gold Foil Experiment (Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering
Experiment)
Apparatus:
● Thin gold foil
● Alpha particles (He²⁺) from radioactive source
● Zinc sulphide screen (detects alpha rays as flashes)
Procedure:
● Alpha particles were bombarded on a thin gold foil.
● Scattered alpha particles were detected on the fluorescent screen.
Observations:
● Most passed straight without deflection.
● Some deflected at small angles.
● A few (1 in 20,000) bounced back.
Conclusions:
● Atom is mostly empty space.
● Positive charge and most of mass is concentrated in a tiny dense
nucleus.
● Electrons revolve around the nucleus.
🌟 4. Photoelectric Effect (Einstein’s Explanation)
Apparatus:
● Light source of different frequencies
● Metal plate (emits electrons when light falls)
● Electrometer (to measure current)
Procedure:
● Light of frequency ν\nuν is shined on a metal.
● If ν≥ν0 (threshold frequency), electrons are ejected.
Observations:
● Below ν0, no electrons ejected regardless of intensity.
● Above ν0, ejection is instantaneous.
● K.E. of electrons increases with frequency, not intensity.
Einstein’s Equation:
🌟 5. Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
Observation:
● Hydrogen emits light in discrete lines (not continuous).
● When passed through a prism, a line spectrum is obtained.
Explanation (Bohr’s Model):
● Electrons revolve in fixed orbits.
● When electron jumps from higher to lower orbit, energy is released as
a photon.
Formula (Rydberg Equation):
Lyman series: UV region, n1=1
Balmer series: Visible region,
n1=2
Paschen series: IR region,
n1=3
Bracket series: IR region, n1=4
Pfund series: IR region, n1=5
🌟 6. Schrödinger Wave Equation (Quantum Mechanical Model)
