MODULE - 1

INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Multiple Integral

DOUBLE INTERGALS
Consider a function f(x, y) of the independent variables x, y defined at each point I the finite
region R of the xy-plane. Divide R into n elementary areas  A1 ,  A2 , ,  An . Let ( xr , yr )
n
be any point within the rth elementary area  Ar . Then consider the sum  f ( xr , yr ) Ar
r 1

i.e. f ( x1 , y1 ) A1  f ( x2 , y2 ) A2   f ( xn , yn ) An
The limit of this sum, if it exists, as n   is defined as the double integral of f(x, y) over the
n
region R and is written as  f ( x, y)dA Thus  f ( x, y)dA  Lim  f ( xr , yr ) Ar
n
R R  A0 r 1

Evaluation of double:

(i) If R is a region in the xy-plane bounded by the curves y  y1 ( x), y  y2 ( x) and the lines x
b  y2 ( x) 
= a, x = b, then we have  f ( x, y )dA     f ( x, y )dy  dx
 
R
 1
a y ( x)


(ii) If R is a region in the xy-plane bounded by the curves x  x1 ( y ), x  x2 ( y ) and the lines y
d  x2 ( y) 
= c, y = d, then we have  f ( x, y )dA    f ( x, y )dx  dy

 
R
 1
c x ( y)


(iii) If R is a rectangular region bounded by the lines x = a, x = b, y = c, y = d the we have

db bd

 f ( x, y )dA    f ( x, y )dxdy    f ( x, y )dydx

R ca ac

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 1

 𝑥 𝑦
Double integrals: ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴 = ∫𝑥 2 ∫𝑦 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1 1

Evaluate the following:

1 √𝑥
1. ∫0 ∫𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

𝑥
1 𝑦2 √
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐼 = ∫0 𝑥 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

1 1
= ∫ 𝑥 [ 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ] 𝑑𝑥
2 0
1 1
= 2 ∫0 [ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ] 𝑑𝑥
1
1 𝑥3 𝑥4
= 2[3 − ]
4 0

𝟏
𝑰 = 𝟐𝟒

1 𝑦
2. ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1 𝑦
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐼 = ∫0 ∫0 (𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑦
1 𝑥3 𝑥2
= ∫0 [𝑦 + 𝑦2 ] 𝑑𝑦
3 2 0

1 𝑦4 𝑦4
= ∫0 [ 3 + 2
] 𝑑𝑦

1 5𝑦 4
= ∫0 𝑑𝑦
6

1
5 𝑦5
= [ ]
6 5 0

𝟏
𝑰=𝟔

𝑦
1 𝑥2
3 ∫0 ∫0 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 2

 𝑦
1 𝑥2
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐼 = ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=0 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝑦 𝑥
1 𝑒𝑥
= ∫𝑥=0 [ 1 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 0
1 𝑥2
= ∫𝑥=0 𝑥[𝑒 ⁄𝑥 − 𝑒 0 ] 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫𝑥=0 𝑥[𝑒 𝑥 − 1] 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫𝑥=0[𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥2
= [𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 − ]
2 0

𝟏
𝑰=𝟐

1 1 1 1
4.∫0 ∫0 √1−𝑥2 √1−𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

1 1 1 1
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫0 ∫0 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
√1−𝑦 2
1 1 1 1
= ∫0 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 ∫0 √1−𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
= [𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥]10 [𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦]10

= (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 0)(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 0)

𝜋 𝜋
= ( 2 − 0) (2 − 0)

𝝅𝟐
𝑰= 𝟒

1 √1+𝑥2
1
5. ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
0 0 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
1 √1+𝑥 2 1
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐼 = ∫0 ∫0 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

𝐿𝑒𝑡 1 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = √1 + 𝑥 2

1 𝑎 𝑑𝑦
𝐼 = ∫0 ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 +𝑦 2
11 𝑦 𝑎
= ∫0 [ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎)] 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0
11
= ∫0 𝑎 [𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0)]𝑑𝑥
1 1𝜋
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0 4
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 = √1 + 𝑥 2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 3

 𝜋 1 1
= ∫0 √1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
4
𝜋
= 4 [log(𝑥 + √1 + 𝑥 2 ]]10
𝜋
= 4 [log(1 + √2) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 ]
𝝅
𝑰 = 𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟏 + √𝟐)

Triple integrals:

2 2 2 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
∬ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝐴 = ∫𝑥 ∫𝑦 ∫𝑧 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1 1 1

Evaluate the following:

1 𝑥 𝑥𝑧
1. ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑥𝑧
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑧
1 𝑥 𝑦2
= ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑧 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
0
1 1 𝑥
= 2 ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑧 (𝑥 2 𝑧 2 − 0)𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
1 1 𝑥
𝐼 = 2 ∫0 ∫0 𝑥 3 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥

𝑥
1 1 𝑧4
= 2 ∫0 𝑥 3 [ 4 ] 𝑑𝑥
0
1 1
= 8 ∫0 𝑥 3 (𝑥 4 − 0) 𝑑𝑥

1
1 1 1 𝑥8 1
= 8 ∫0 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥 = 8 [ 8 ] = 64
0
𝟏
∴ 𝑰 = 𝟔𝟒

𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
2. ∫−𝑐 ∫−𝑏 ∫−𝑎(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

𝑺𝒐𝒍:
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫−𝑐 ∫−𝑏 ∫−𝑎(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 4

 𝑎
𝑐 𝑏 𝑧3
= ∫−𝑐 ∫−𝑏 (𝑥 2 𝑧 + 𝑦 2 𝑧 + ) 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
3 −𝑎

𝑐 𝑏 2𝑎3
= ∫−𝑐 ∫−𝑏 (2𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑦 2 + ) 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
3
𝑏
𝑐 𝑦3 2𝑎3
= ∫−𝑐 (2𝑎𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑎 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
3 3 −𝑏

𝑐 4𝑎𝑏 3 4𝑎3 𝑏
= ∫−𝑐(4𝑎𝑏𝑥 2 + + ) 𝑑𝑥
3 3
𝑐
𝑥3 4𝑎𝑏 3 4𝑎3 𝑏
= [4𝑎𝑏 + 𝑥+ 𝑥]
3 3 3 −𝑐

𝟖
∴𝑰= 𝒂𝒃𝒄(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 )
𝟑

1 𝑧 𝑥+𝑧
3. ∫−1 ∫0 ∫𝑥−𝑧 (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

1 𝑧 𝑥+𝑧
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
−1 0 𝑥−𝑧
𝑥+𝑧
1 𝑧 𝑦2
= ∫−1 ∫0 (𝑥𝑦 + + 𝑧𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
2 𝑥−𝑧
1 𝑧
= ∫ ∫ (4𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
−1 0
𝑧
1 𝑥2
= ∫−1 [4 𝑧 + 2𝑧 2 𝑥] 𝑑𝑧
2 0
1
= ∫−1[2𝑧(𝑧 2 − 0) + 2𝑧 2 (𝑧 − 0)]𝑑𝑧
1
= ∫−1 4𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧
−1
𝑧4
∴ 𝐼 = [4 4 ] =0
−1

1 √1−𝑥 2 √1−𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
4. ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

1 √1−𝑥 2 √1−𝑥2 −𝑦 2
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
0 0 0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 5

 √1−𝑥2 −𝑦2
1 √1−𝑥 2 𝑧2
= ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑦 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0

1 √1−𝑥 2
= ∫0 ∫0 (𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

√1−𝑥 2
1 𝑦2 𝑦 2 𝑦4
= ∫0 [𝑥 2 − 𝑥3 2 −𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
4 0

1 1
= 8 ∫0 (𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 ) 𝑑𝑥
1
1 𝑥2 2𝑥 4 𝑥6
= 8[ − + ]
2 4 6 0
1
∴ 𝐼 = 48

1 √𝑎2 −𝑥2 √𝑎2 −𝑥 2 −𝑦 2

5. ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

𝑎6
∴ 𝐼 = 48

Evaluation of double integrals- change of order of integration.

1. Straight lines.
 X=0 is an equation of y-axis.
 Y=0 is an equation of x-axis.
 X= h is an equation of line parallel to y-axis.
 Y=k is an equation of line parallel to x-axis.
 Y=m x is an equation of line passing through origin.
 Y=x is an equation of line passing through origin making an
angle 45 degree with x-axis
𝒙 𝒚
 +𝒃=𝟏
𝒂
is the equation of line passing through the points (a, 0)and (0, b).

 (𝒙 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) = (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦 − 𝑦2 )
is the equation of the line passing through the given two points.
2. Circles.

 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝒂𝟐
is an equation of the circle with the center at origin and radius a

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 6

  (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝒓𝟐
is an equation of circle with centre at (h, k) and radius r.

𝑥2 𝑦2
3. Ellipse : + 𝒃𝟐 = 1
𝒂𝟐

4. Parabola.

 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 is symmetric about positive x − axis.

 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 is symmetric about positive y − axis

 𝑦 2 = −4𝑎𝑥 is symmetric about negative x − axis.

 𝑥 2 = −4𝑎𝑦 is symmetric about negative y − axis

Problems
Evaluate the following by changing the order of the integration

1 √𝑥
1. Evaluate ∫0 ∫𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 by changing the order of the integration.
1 √𝑥
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 1

𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 = 𝑥

On changing the order of the integration.

𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 1

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 7

 1 𝑦
∴𝐼=∫ ∫ 𝑦 (𝑥𝑑𝑥)𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 𝑥=𝑦 2

1 𝑦
𝑥2
= ∫ 𝑦 [ ] 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 2 𝑦2

1 1
= ∫ 𝑦(𝑦 2 − 𝑦 4 )𝑑𝑦
2 𝑦=0

1 1
= ∫ (𝑦 3 − 𝑦 5 )𝑑𝑦
2 𝑦=0

1
1 𝑦4 𝑦6
= [ − ]
2 4 6 0

𝟏
∴𝑰=
𝟐𝟒

2. Evaluate ∬ 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) = 0 ∴ 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝟏
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑦 = 0 , 𝑦 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 (0,0)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1,1)

1 𝑥
∴ ∬ 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ∫ (𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑦=𝑥 2

𝑥
1 𝑦2 𝑦3
= ∫𝑥=0 [ 𝑥 2 +𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
2 3 𝑥2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 8

 1 𝑥4 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥7
𝐼 = ∫𝑥=0 ( + − − ) 𝑑𝑥
2 3 2 3

1
𝑥5 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥8
= ( 10 + 15 − 14 − 24 )
𝑥=0
𝟑
∴ 𝑰 = 𝟓𝟔

3. Change the order of the integration and hence evaluate

4𝑎 2√𝑎𝑥
∫0 ∫𝑥2 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
4𝑎

4𝑎 2√𝑎𝑥
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐼 = ∫𝑥=0 ∫ 𝑥2 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑦=
4𝑎

𝑥2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2√𝑎𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 4 = 64𝑎 3 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 4𝑎
4𝑎

𝑥2
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑦 = 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 4𝑎
4𝑎

4𝑎 2√𝑎𝑦
∴ 𝐼=∫ ∫ 𝑦 (𝑥 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦2
𝑦=0 𝑥=
4𝑎

2 𝑎𝑦
4𝑎
𝑥2 √
𝐼=∫ 𝑦 [ ] 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 2 𝑥=𝑦
4𝑎

4𝑎 𝑦5
= ∫𝑦=0 (2𝑎𝑦 2 − 32𝑎2 ) 𝑑𝑦

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 9

 4𝑎
𝑦3 1 𝑦6
= (2𝑎 − 32𝑎2 )
3 6 0

𝑎4
∴ 𝐼 = 64
3

4. Change the order of the integration and hence evaluate

∞ ∞ 𝑒 −𝑦
∫0 ∫𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑦
∞ ∞
𝑒 −𝑦
𝑆𝑜𝑙 ∶ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑦= 𝑥 𝑦

On changing the order of the limit ,

we must have y = 0 to y = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑦

∞ ∞𝑦
𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑦
∴ 𝐼=∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [𝑥 ]𝑥=0 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 𝑥=0 𝑦 𝑦=0 𝑦

∞ 𝑒 −𝑦 ∞
= ∫𝑦=0 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑦=0 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦
−𝑦 ∞
𝑒
=[ ] = −(0 − 1) = 1
−1 0
∴𝐼 =1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑥
5.Evaluate ∫0 ∫𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 by changing the order of the integration.
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑦 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 10

 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑦 , 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒.
𝑎 𝑥
1
𝐼=∫ ∫ 𝑥 ( 𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
1 −1 𝑦⁄
= ∫ 𝑥 [𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) − 0 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑥 𝑦=0 𝑥=0

𝑎
𝜋 𝜋 𝑎
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1. 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 4 4 𝑥=0

𝜋 𝑎 𝜋
= [𝑥] = 𝑎
4 0 4

𝜋𝑎
∴𝐼=
4

Evaluation by changing into Polar coordinates

∞ ∞ 2 2
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫0 ∫0 𝑒 −( 𝑥 +𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 ∞ ⇒ 𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 ∞

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 11

 𝜋
𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜃 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜
2
𝜋
∞ 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∫𝜃=0
2
∫𝑟=0 𝑒 −𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑟 2 = 𝑡 ⇒ 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑟𝑑𝑟 =
2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 ∞
𝜋
∞
2 𝑑𝑡
𝐼= ∫ ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0 𝑡=0 2
𝜋 ∞
1 𝑒 −𝑡
= 2 ∫𝜃=0
2 [ ] 𝑑𝜃
−1 𝑡=0
𝜋
1
= 2 ∫𝜃=0
2 −(0 − 1)𝑑𝜃
𝜋
1
= 2 ∫𝜃=0
2 1 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
1 2
= 2 [ 𝜃 ]𝜃=0
𝜋
∴𝐼 =
4
𝑎 √𝑎2 −𝑦 2
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫ ∫ 𝑦√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
0 0
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑦 2 𝑜𝑟
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 ; 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜋
𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜃 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜
2
𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑎
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑥 = 0 , 𝑦 = 0 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟 = 0 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑎
𝜋
𝑎
2
∴𝐼= ∫ ∫ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 . 𝑟. 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑟=0 𝜃=0
𝜋
𝑎
= ∫𝑟=0 ∫𝜃=0
2 𝑟 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟
𝜋
𝑎
= ∫𝑟=0 𝑟 3 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)02 𝑑𝑟
𝑎 𝜋
= ∫𝑟=0 −𝑟 3 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0) 𝑑𝑟
𝑎
= ∫𝑟=0 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝑎
𝑟4
=[ ]
4 0
4
𝑎
∴𝐼 =
4

Application of Double and Triple internals

.
1. Area of Region R in the Cartesian form: ∬𝑅 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 12

 .
2. Area of Region R in the Polar form: ∬𝑅 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
.
3. Volume of solid in the Cartesian form:∭𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
.
4. Volume of solid in the Polar form: ∬𝑅 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝑥2 𝑦2
1. Find the area of the ellipse 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 + = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒
𝑎2 𝑏 2

𝑏 2 2
𝑎 √𝑎 −𝑥
𝑎
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 4∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑦=0

𝑏
𝑎 √𝑎2 −𝑥 2
= 4 ∫𝑥=0[𝑦]𝑎0 𝑑𝑥

𝑎 𝑏
= 4 ∫𝑥=0 𝑎 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

4𝑏 𝑎
= 𝑎
∫𝑥=0 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
4𝑏 𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
= [2 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑎)]
𝑎 2 0

4𝑏 𝑎2
= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1)]
𝑎 2

4𝑏 𝑎2 𝜋
= [ ]
𝑎 2 2

∴ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

2. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 the area lying between the circle

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 , 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 .

𝑎 √𝑎2 −𝑥 2
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐴 = ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑦=𝑎−𝑥

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 13

 𝑎
2 2
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑦]√𝑎
𝑎−𝑥
−𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0

𝑎
= ∫𝑥=0( √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑎 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

4𝑏 𝑎
=
𝑎
∫𝑥=0 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑥2
= [2 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑎) − 𝑎𝑥 + ]
2 2 0

𝑎2 𝑎2
=[ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1) − 𝑎2 + ]
2 2

𝑎2 𝜋 𝑎2
= −
2 2 2

𝑎2 𝜋
= ( 2 − 1)
2

𝑎2 (𝜋 − 2)
∴𝐴= 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
4
3. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 the area enclosed by the curve

r = a(1 + cosθ)𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜃 = 𝜋
𝜋 a(1+cosθ)
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐴 = ∫ ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0 𝑟=0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 14

 𝜋 a(1+cosθ)
𝑟2
𝐴=∫ [ ] 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0 2 0
1 𝜋
= 2 ∫𝜃=0 𝑎2 (1 + cosθ)2 𝑑𝜃
1 𝜋 𝜃
= 2 ∫𝜃=0 𝑎2 ( 2cos 2 ( 2) )2 𝑑𝜃
𝑎2 𝜋 𝜃
= 2 ∫𝜃=0 4cos4 2 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜃
= 2𝑎2 ∫𝜃=0 cos4 2 𝑑𝜃

𝜃
𝑃𝑢𝑡 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝜃 = 2𝑡 ⇒ 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝑑𝑡
2
𝜋
𝑖𝑓 𝜃 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜋 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜
2
𝜋
𝐴 = 2𝑎2 ∫𝑡=0
2 cos 4 𝑡 . 2 𝑑𝑡
3 1 𝜋
= 4𝑎2 [4 . 2 ] 2
3𝑎2 𝜋
∴𝐴= 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
4

4. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒

r = a(1 + cosθ) 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡h𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙.

𝜋 a(1+cosθ)
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝑊. 𝐾. 𝑇 , 𝑉=∫ ∫ 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0 𝑟=0

𝜋 a(1+cosθ)
𝑟3
𝑉 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 [ ] 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0 3 0
2𝜋 𝜋
= 3
∫𝜃=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎3 (1 + cosθ)3 𝑑𝜃
2𝑎3 𝜋 𝜋
= 3
∫𝜃=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1 + cosθ)3 𝑑𝜃
𝑃𝑢𝑡 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑡 ⇒ −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = −𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑓 𝜃 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜋 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2 𝑡𝑜 0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 15

 2𝑎3 𝜋 0 3
𝑉= ∫ 𝑡 (−𝑑𝑡)t 3 . −𝑑𝑡
3 𝑡=2
0
−2𝑎3 𝜋 t4
= [4]
3 2
−𝑎3 𝜋
= (0 − 16)
6
8𝑎3 𝜋
∴𝑉= 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3

5. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 , 𝑧 = 0

𝑺𝒐𝒍: 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 ∭𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑧 = 4 − 𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑧 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 4 − 𝑦

𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 ⇒ 𝑦 2 = 4 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ±√4 − 𝑥 2

ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑜 √4 − 𝑥 2

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 = 4

𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − 2 𝑡𝑜 2

2 √4−𝑥 2 4−𝑦
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑉 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥=−2 𝑦=−√4−𝑥 2 𝑧=0

2 √4−𝑥 2
= ∫𝑥=−2 ∫𝑦=−√4−𝑥 2 [𝑧]4−𝑦
0 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

2 √4−𝑥 2
= ∫𝑥=−2 ∫𝑦=−√4−𝑥 2 ( 4 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

√4−𝑥 2
2 𝑦2
= ∫𝑥=−2 [4𝑦 − ] 𝑑𝑥
2 −√4−𝑥 2
2
= ∫𝑥=−2 8 √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2
= 2 ∫𝑥=0 8 √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2
= 16 ∫𝑥=0 √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 4 𝑥 2
= 16 [2 √4 − 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2)]
0

= 16[ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1)]

𝜋
= 32 2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 16

 ∴ 𝑉 = 16𝜋 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Beta and Gamma functions:


Gamma functions is defined as: (n)   e x x n1dx, (n  0) ------(1)
0
1
and Beta function is defined as  (m, n)   x m1(1  x)n1dx, (m, n  0) -------(2)
0
Alternative form: Put x = t2. Then dx = 2tdt, t also varies from 0 to ∞
 2  2  2
(n)   et (t 2 )n1 2tdt  2  et t 2n1dt  2  e x x 2n1dx ------- (3) is the alternative form
t 0 0 0
of Gamma function.
Put x  sin 2   dx  2sin  cos d .
If x  0, sin 2   0    0 & if x  1,sin 2   1     / 2
 /2  /2
  (m, n)   (sin 2  )m1(cos2  )n1 2sin  cos d  2  sin 2m1 cos 2n1  d ------ (4) is
 0 0
alternative form of Beta function.

Properties of Gamma and Beta functions:

1. (i ) (n  1)  nn) (ii ) (n  1)  n ! for a positive integer n
2.  (m, n)   (n, m)
(m).(n)
3. Relationship between Beta and Gamma functions :  (m, n) 
( m  n)
4. To show that (1/ 2)  
5. Duplication formula: (i)  (2m)  22m1 (m) (m  1/ 2)
(ii)  (m, 1/2)  22m1  (m, m)
 /2 1  p 1 q 1 
 sin  cos d    7. (1/ 4).(3 / 4)   2.
p q
6. , 
0 2  2 2 

(m).(n)
Relationship between Beta and Gamma functions:  (m, n) 
( m  n)

𝑷𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 ∶ 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜋
2
𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛) = 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑚−1 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − −(1)
0
∞
2
ᴦ(𝑛) = 2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 − −(2)
0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 17

 ∞
2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ᴦ(𝑚) = 2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑦 2𝑚−1 𝑑𝑦 − −(3)
0

∞
2
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 ᴦ(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 2 ∫ 𝑒 −(𝑟 ) 𝑟 2(𝑚+𝑛)−1 𝑑𝑟 − −(4)
0

∞ ∞
2 +𝑦 2 )
𝑁𝑜𝑤 ᴦ(𝑚). ᴦ(𝑛) = 2 ∫ ∫ 𝑒 −(𝑥 𝑥 2𝑛−1 𝑦 2𝑚−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − −(5)
0 0

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝐻𝑆 𝑏𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 ∞
𝜋
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜
2
𝜋
∞
2 2
ᴦ(𝑚). ᴦ(𝑛) = 4 ∫ ∫ 𝑒 −𝑟 (𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 2𝑛−1 (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2𝑚−1 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑟=0 𝜃=0
𝜋
∞
2 2
= 4∫ ∫ 𝑒 −𝑟 𝑟 2(𝑚+𝑛)−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑚−1 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑟=0 𝜃=0
𝜋
∞
2
−𝑟 2 2(𝑚+𝑛)−1
= {2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 } {2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑚−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃}
𝑟=0 𝜃=0

ᴦ(𝑚). ᴦ(𝑛) = ᴦ(𝑚 + 𝑛). 𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛) {𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (4)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1)𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦}

ᴦ(𝑚). ᴦ(𝑛)
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛) =
ᴦ(𝑚 + 𝑛)

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 ᴦ(𝟏/𝟐) = √𝝅 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 ᴦ(𝒏)

𝑷𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓: 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

∞ ∞
2 2
ᴦ(𝑛) = 2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 ∴ ᴦ(1/2) = 2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 2.1/2−1 𝑑𝑥
0 0

∞ ∞
2 2
ᴦ(1/2) = 2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 ᴦ(1/2) = 2 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0 0

1 2 ∞ ∞
2 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 { ᴦ ( )} = 4 ∫ ∫ 𝑒 −(𝑥 +𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2 0 0

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 18

 𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 ∞
𝜋
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜
2
𝜋
1 2 2
∞
2
{ ᴦ ( )} = 4 ∫ ∫ 𝑒 −𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
2 0 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑟 2 = 𝑡 ⇒ 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑟𝑑𝑟 =
2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 ∞
𝜋
∞
2 𝑑𝑡
= 4∫ ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝜃
0 𝑡=0 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝜋
= 2∫ − (𝑒 −𝑡 )∞
0 𝑑𝜃 = 2 ∫ 1. 𝑑𝜃 = 2 [𝜃]02 = 2. =𝜋
0 0 2
1 2
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 { ᴦ ( )} = 𝜋
2
∴ ᴦ(𝟏/𝟐) = √𝝅

Problems
∞
1. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫0 𝑥 3/2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∞
3
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

 3 5
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 (n)   e x x n1dx, (n  0) here n − 1 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 =
0 2 2

𝟓
𝐼 = ᴦ( )
𝟐
𝟓 𝟓
= (𝟐 − 𝟏 ) (𝟐 − 𝟐) ᴦ(𝟏/𝟐)

3 1
𝐼= ∗ ∗ √𝝅
2 2
𝟑
𝑰= √𝝅
𝟒

1 3 1
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫0 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥

𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ᴦ 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 19

 1
Sol: 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒  (m, n)   x m1(1  x)n1dx, (m, n  0)
0

3 5 1 3
here m − 1 = or m5/= and n−1= 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 =
2 2 2 2
1
3 1 5 3
∫ 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛽 ( . )
2 2
0

ᴦ(𝑚). ᴦ(𝑛)
𝑎𝑠 𝑊𝐾𝑇𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛) =
ᴦ(𝑚 + 𝑛)
1
3 1 5 3 ᴦ(5/2). ᴦ(3/2) ᴦ(5/2). ᴦ(3/2)
∫ 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛽 ( . ) = =
2 2 ᴦ(5/2 + 3/2) ᴦ(4)
0

3 1 1
∗ ∗√𝜋 ∗√𝜋 𝜋
=2 2 2
= 16
3!

𝜋 𝜋
𝑑𝜃
3. 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫02 ∫ 2 √𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋
√𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 2 2
𝑑𝜃
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼1 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1/2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1/2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
0 0 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 2 2

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = ∫ √𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛1/2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛1/2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

0 0 0
𝜋
2
1 𝑝+1 𝑞+1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑞 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝛽 ( . )
2 2 2
0

𝜋
2 1
1 −2 + 1 0 + 1 1 1 1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼1 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1/2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝛽 ( . )= 𝛽 ( . )
2 2 2 2 4 2
0
𝜋
2 1
1 +1 0+1 1 3 1
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝐼2 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛1/2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝛽 (2 . )= 𝛽 ( . )
2 2 2 2 4 2
0
1 1 1 1 3 1
∴ 𝐼1 ∗ 𝐼2 = 𝛽 ( . ) ∗ 𝛽 ( . )
2 4 2 2 4 2

3 1
1 ᴦ(1/4).ᴦ(1/2) ᴦ( ).ᴦ( )
4 2
=2 ∗ 5 = 𝜋
ᴦ(3/4) ᴦ( )
4

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 20

 𝜋 𝜋
2 2
𝑑𝜃
∴ ∫ ∫ √𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋
√𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
0 0

𝜋
4. 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫02 √𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋/√2
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
√𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛1/2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1/2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
0 0
1 3 1
1 2
+1 −1/2+1 1 3 1 1 ᴦ(4).ᴦ(4)
=2 𝛽 ( . ) = 2 𝛽 (4 . 4) = 2
2 2 ᴦ(1)
1
= 2 𝜋√2 = 𝜋/√2
5. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝛽 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
2
3
𝑆𝑜𝑙: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫(4 − 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝜃 = 0
𝜋
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 2 ⟹ 𝜃 =
2
𝜋
2
3
= ∫(4 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)2 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2
3
= ∫(4[1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃])2 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2
3
= ∫(22 [1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃])2 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2
3
= ∫ 16 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2

= ∫ 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
2

= 16 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 21

 1 5
1 0+1 4+1 1 5 ᴦ (2) . ᴦ (2)
= 16 𝛽 ( . ) =8𝛽 ( . )=8
2 2 2 2 2 ᴦ(3)

3 1
√𝝅 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ √𝝅 2𝜋 ∗ 3
= 8 = = 3𝜋
2! 2
∴ 𝐼 = 3𝜋

∞
𝑥 𝑚−1
6. 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (1 + 𝑥)𝑚+𝑛
∞ 𝑚−1
𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (1 + 𝑥)𝑚+𝑛

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃

𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝜃 = 0
𝜋
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = ∞ ⟹ 𝜃 =
2
𝜋
2𝑚−2
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑖. 𝑒. , ∫ 2 𝑚+𝑛
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 )
𝜋
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑚−2+1 𝜃
= 2∫ 2 𝑚+𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −2 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
0 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 )
𝜋
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑚−1 𝜃
= 2∫ 𝑑𝜃
0 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑚+2𝑛−2 𝜃
𝜋
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑚−1 𝜃
= 2∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑚−1 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑚−1 𝜃

𝜋
2
= 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑚−1 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛)
0
∞
𝑥 𝑚−1
∴ 𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛) = ∫ 𝑚+𝑛
𝑑𝑥
0 (1 + 𝑥)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 22

 MODULE-2
VECTOR CALCULUS
Vector calculus is a field of mathematics concerned with multivariate real analysis of
vectors in two or more dimensions. It consists of set of problems solving techniques very
useful for engineering and physics.
SCALAR AND VECTOR POINT FUNCTIONS

Let 𝐹⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑓3 (𝑡)𝑘̂ be a ‘Vector function’. Then for various values of 𝑡
we get a set of constant vectors.
Let 𝜑 = 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a ‘Scalar function’. Then for various values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 we get a set of
points or scalars.
Vector operation 𝛻(𝑑𝑒𝑙) is defined by the equation
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
This operator has a great role in vector calculus. Laplacian operator 𝛻 2 is defined as follows

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 23

 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻 2 = 𝛻. 𝛻 = (
𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) . ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝜵𝟐 = 𝟐 + 𝟐 + 𝟐
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
Gradient
The vector function 𝛻𝜑 is defined as the gradient of the scalar function 𝜑 = 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑 = 𝛻𝜑 = (𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘̂) 𝜑

𝝏𝝋 𝝏𝝋 𝝏𝝋
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝝋 = 𝜵𝝋 = ( 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + ̂)
𝒌
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

Geometrically, 𝛻𝜑 represents a normal at any point P to the surface 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 and has a magnitude equal to the rate of change of 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) along this normal.
𝛻𝜑 is a vector quantity.
Note:
𝜵𝝋 𝛻𝑓
̂ = |𝜵𝝋| or 𝑛̂ = |𝛻𝑓|
1. The unit normal vector 𝑛̂ along 𝛻𝜑 is given by 𝒏

2. The component of 𝛻𝜑 in the direction of a unit vector 𝑎⃗ is 𝛻𝜑. 𝑛̂ and is called the
directional derivative of 𝜑 in the direction of 𝑎⃗. Thus, the directional derivative is
maximum in the direction 𝛻𝜑 and the magnitude of this maximum is equal to |𝛻𝜑|.
𝑎⃗⃗
̂
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑫. 𝑫 = 𝜵𝝋. 𝒏 where 𝑛̂ = |𝑎⃗⃗|

Problems
1. Find the unit normal vector to the surface 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 3 at (1,2, −1).
Sol: Let 𝜑 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 3
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦𝑧 = 3𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑧 = 3𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Now, 𝛻𝜑 = ( 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜑 = (3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦𝑧)𝑖̂ + (3𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑧)𝑗̂ + (3𝑥𝑦)𝑘̂

At (1,2, −1)

𝛻𝜑 = (3 − 6)𝑖̂ + (12 − 3)𝑗̂ + (6)𝑘̂

𝛻𝜑 = −3𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂

|𝛻𝜑| = √(−3)2 + (9)2 + (6)2 = √9 + 81 + 36

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 24

 |𝜵𝝋| = √𝟏𝟐𝟔
𝜵𝝋 ̂
−3𝑖̂+9𝑗̂ +6𝑘
̂ = |𝜵𝝋| =
The unit normal vector , 𝒏
√𝟏𝟐𝟔

2. Find the unit normal vector to the surface 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 𝑥 = 5 at (1, −1,2).

Sol: Let 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 𝑥 − 5

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2 . 1 = 𝑥 2 . 1 + 2𝑦𝑧 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑧𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Now, 𝛻𝜑 = ( 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜑 = (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2 )𝑖̂ + (𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂ + (𝑦 2 + 2𝑧𝑥)𝑘̂

At (1, −1,2)

𝛻𝜑 = (−2 + 4)𝑖̂ + (1 − 4)𝑗̂ + (1 + 4)𝑘̂

̂
𝜵𝝋 = 𝟐𝒊̂ − 𝟑𝒋̂ + 𝟓𝒌

|𝛻𝜑| = √(2)2 + (−3)2 + (5)2 = √4 + 9 + 25

|𝜵𝝋| = √𝟑𝟖

𝜵𝝋 ̂
2𝑖̂−3𝑗̂ +5𝑘
̂ = |𝜵𝝋| =
The unit normal vector , 𝒏
√𝟑𝟖

3. Find the directional derivative of the function 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3 at (2, −1,1) along 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂

Sol: Given 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3 Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 1. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥. 2𝑦 + 1. 𝑧 3 = 0 + 𝑦. 3𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝑦2 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 = 3𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Now, 𝛻𝜑 = ( 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜑 = (𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝑗̂ + (3𝑦𝑧 2 )𝑘̂

At (2, −1,1)

𝛻𝜑 = (1)𝑖̂ + (−4 + 1)𝑗̂ + (−3)𝑘̂

̂
𝜵𝝋 = 𝒊̂ − 𝟑𝒋̂ − 𝟑𝒌

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 25

 ̂
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝟐𝒋̂ + 𝟑𝒌
Also, 𝒂

|𝑎⃗| = √12 + 22 + 32

|𝑎⃗| = √1 + 4 + 9

|𝒂
⃗⃗| = √𝟏𝟒

𝑎⃗⃗ ̂
𝒊̂+𝟐𝒋̂+𝟑𝒌
∴ 𝑛̂ = |𝑎⃗⃗| =
√𝟏𝟒

̂
𝑫. 𝑫 = 𝜵𝝋. 𝒏

̂)
(𝑖̂+2𝑗̂ +3𝑘
𝐷. 𝐷 = (𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂).
√14
(1)(1) + (−3)(2) + (−3)(3)
𝐷. 𝐷 =
√14
1−6−9
𝐷. 𝐷 =
√14
−14
𝐷. 𝐷 =
√14
𝑫. 𝑫 = −√𝟏𝟒

4. Find the directional derivative of the function 𝑓 = 4𝑥𝑧 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 at (2, −1,2) along
2𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂
Sol: Given 𝑓 = 4𝑥𝑧 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 Let 𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 4𝑧 3 . 1 − 3𝑦 2 𝑧. 2𝑥 = 0 − 3𝑥 2 𝑧. 2𝑦 = 4𝑥. 3𝑧 2 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 . 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 4𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 = −6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 = 12𝑥𝑧 2 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
Now, 𝛻𝑓 = (𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝛻𝑓 = (4𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧)𝑖̂ + (−6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂ + (12𝑥𝑧 2 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )𝑘̂

At (2, −1,2)

𝛻𝑓 = (32 − 24)𝑖̂ + (48)𝑗̂ + (96 − 12)𝑘̂

̂
𝜵𝒇 = 𝟖𝒊̂ + 𝟒𝟖𝒋̂ + 𝟖𝟒𝒌

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 26

 ̂
⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝒊̂ − 𝟑𝒋̂ + 𝟔𝒌
Also, 𝒂

|𝑎⃗| = √22 + (−3)2 + 62

|𝑎⃗| = √4 + 9 + 36

|𝑎⃗| = √49

|𝒂
⃗⃗| = 𝟕

𝑎⃗⃗ ̂
𝟐𝒊̂−𝟑𝒋̂+𝟔𝒌
∴ 𝑛̂ = |𝑎⃗⃗| = 𝟕

̂
𝑫. 𝑫 = 𝜵𝒇. 𝒏

(2𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂)

𝐷. 𝐷 = (8𝑖̂ + 48𝑗̂ + 84𝑘̂).
7
(8)(2) + (48)(−3) + (84)(6)
𝐷. 𝐷 =
7
16 − 144 + 504
𝐷. 𝐷 =
7
𝟑𝟕𝟔
𝑫. 𝑫 =
𝟕
5. Find the directional derivative of 𝜑 = 𝑒 2𝑥 cos(𝑦𝑧) at the origin in the direction of
𝜋
the tangent to the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 and 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑡 at 𝑡 = 4.

Sol: Given 𝜑 = 𝑒 2𝑥 cos(𝑦𝑧)

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= cos(𝑦𝑧) . 2𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 [− sin(𝑦𝑧) . 𝑧] = 𝑒 2𝑥 [− sin(𝑦𝑧) . 𝑦]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 2𝑒 2𝑥 cos(𝑦𝑧) = −𝑒 2𝑥 𝑧𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑦𝑧) = −𝑒 2𝑥 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑦𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Now, 𝛻𝜑 = ( 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜑 = [2𝑒 2𝑥 cos(𝑦𝑧)]𝑖̂ + [−𝑒 2𝑥 𝑧𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑦𝑧)]𝑗̂ + [−𝑒 2𝑥 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑦𝑧) ]𝑘̂

At origin i.e., (0,0,0)

𝛻𝜑 = (2)𝑖̂ + (0)𝑗̂ + (0)𝑘̂ (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 0 = cos(0) = 1 , sin(0) = 0)

𝛻𝜑 = 2𝑖̂

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 27

 Consider, 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂

𝑟⃗ = (𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)𝑖̂ + (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)𝑗̂ + (𝑎𝑡) 𝑘̂

𝑑𝑟⃗
= (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)𝑖̂ + (−𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)𝑗̂ + (𝑎) 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡
𝜋
At 𝑡 = 4

𝑑𝑟⃗ 1 1
= (𝑎. ) 𝑖̂ + (−𝑎. ) 𝑗̂ + (𝑎)𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 √2 √2
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑎 𝑎
= ( ) 𝑖̂ − ( ) 𝑗̂ + (𝑎)𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 √2 √2
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑡
Unit normal vector , 𝑛̂ = ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
| |
𝑑𝑡

𝑎 𝑎
( ) 𝑖̂ − ( ) 𝑗̂ + (𝑎)𝑘̂
𝑛̂ = √2 √2
𝑎 2 𝑎 2
√( ) + (− ) + 𝑎2
√2 √2

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
( ) 𝑖̂ − ( ) 𝑗̂ + (𝑎)𝑘̂ ( ) 𝑖̂ − ( ) 𝑗̂ + (𝑎)𝑘̂
𝑛̂ = √2 √2 = √2 √2
2 2 √𝑎 + 𝑎2
2
√𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 2
2 2
𝑎 𝑎
) 𝑖̂ − ( ) 𝑗̂ + (𝑎)𝑘̂
(
𝑛̂ = √2 √2
√2. 𝑎

𝑎
(𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + √2𝑘̂)
𝑛̂ = √2
√2. 𝑎

(𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + √2𝑘̂ )
𝑛̂ =
2
̂
𝑫. 𝑫 = 𝜵𝝋. 𝒏
̂)
(𝑖̂−𝑗̂ +√2𝑘
𝐷. 𝐷 = 2𝑖̂. 2

𝑫. 𝑫 =1

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 28

 6. Find the directional derivative of 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3 at the point (2, −1,1) in the direction
normal to the surface 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 − 𝑦 2 + 4 at the point (−1,2,1).
Sol: Given 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 1. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥. 2𝑦 + 1. 𝑧 3 = 0 + 𝑦. 3𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝑦2 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 = 3𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Now, 𝛻𝜑 = ( 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜑 = (𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝑗̂ + (3𝑦𝑧 2 )𝑘̂

At (2, −1,1)

𝛻𝜑 = (1)𝑖̂ + (−4 + 1)𝑗̂ + (−3)𝑘̂

𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂
Also given 𝜓 = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 − 𝑦 2 + 4

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 1
= 1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 − 0 = 0 − 2𝑦 = 𝑥. 𝑧 − 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 = −2𝑦 =𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Now, 𝛻𝜓 = ( 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑧

𝑥
𝛻𝜓 = (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧)𝑖̂ + (−2𝑦)𝑗̂ + ( ) 𝑘̂
𝑧

At (−1,2,1)
−1
𝛻𝜓 = (𝑙𝑜𝑔1)𝑖̂ + (−2.2)𝑗̂ + ( ) 𝑘̂
1

𝛻𝜓 = (0)𝑖̂ + (−4)𝑗̂ + (−1)𝑘̂

|𝛻𝜓| = √(−4)2 + (−1)2

|𝜵𝝍| = √𝟏𝟕

𝛻𝜓 0𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂
̂=
𝒏 =
|𝛻𝜓| √17
̂
𝑫. 𝑫 = 𝜵𝝋. 𝒏

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 29

 𝛻𝜓
𝐷. 𝐷 = 𝛻𝜑.
|𝛻𝜓|

(0𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂)

𝐷. 𝐷 = (𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂).
√17
(1)(0) + (−3)(−4) + (−3)(−1)
𝐷. 𝐷 =
√17
0 + 12 + 3
𝐷. 𝐷 =
√17
𝟏𝟓
𝑫. 𝑫 =
√𝟏𝟕
7. The directional derivative of 𝜑 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦𝑧 + 𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 3 at the point (−1,1,2) has
maximum
magnitude of 32 units in the direction parallel to 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 find 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐.
Sol: Given 𝜑 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦𝑧 + 𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 3
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝑎𝑦 2 . 1 + 0 + 𝑐𝑧 2 . 3𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑥. 2𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧. 1 + 0 = 0 + 𝑏𝑦. 1 + 𝑐𝑥 3 . 2𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝑎𝑦 2 + 3𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 2 = 2𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧 = 𝑏𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑧𝑥 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Now, 𝛻𝜑 = ( 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜑 = (𝑎𝑦 2 + 3𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧)𝑗̂ + (𝑏𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑧𝑥 3 )𝑘̂

At (−1,1,2)

𝛻𝜑 = (𝑎𝑦 2 + 3𝑐𝑧 2 𝑥 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧)𝑗̂ + (𝑏𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑧𝑥 3 )𝑘̂

𝛻𝜑 = (𝑎 + 12𝑐)𝑖̂ + (−2𝑎 + 2𝑏)𝑗̂ + (𝑏 − 4𝑐)𝑘̂

Since the D.D of 𝜑 has a maximum magnitude of 32units in the direction parallel to 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
is

𝛻𝜑. 𝑗̂ = 32

[(𝑎 + 12𝑐)𝑖̂ + (−2𝑎 + 2𝑏)𝑗̂ + (𝑏 − 4𝑐)𝑘̂ ]. [0𝑖̂ + 1. 𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂] = 32

⇒ 𝑎 + 12𝑐 = 0 −2𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 32 𝑏 − 4𝑐 = 0
⇒ 𝒂 = −𝟏𝟐𝒄 ⇒ 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 16 ⇒ 𝒃 = 𝟒𝒄
⇒ 4𝑐 − (−12𝑐) = 16
⇒ 16𝑐 = 16

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 30

 ⇒ 𝐚 = −𝟏𝟐 ⇒𝒄=𝟏 ⇒𝒃=𝟒
∴ 𝒂 = −𝟏𝟐, 𝒃 = 𝟒, 𝒄 = 𝟏
8. Find the angle between the surfaces or normal surfaces 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 9 and
𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3 at (2, −1,2).

Sol: Given 𝜑 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 9 𝜓 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑧 − 3

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
= 2𝑥 = 2𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
= 2𝑦 = 2𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
= 2𝑧 = −1
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Wkt, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜑 = (2𝑥)𝑖̂ + (2𝑦)𝑗̂ + (2𝑧)𝑘̂

At (2, −1,2)

𝛻𝜑 = (2.2)𝑖̂ + (2. (−1))𝑗̂ + (2.2)𝑘̂

̂
𝜵𝝋 = 𝟒𝒊̂ − 𝟐𝒋̂ + 𝟒𝒌

|𝛻𝜑| = √42 + (−2)2 + 42 = √36

|𝜵𝝋| = 𝟔
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Also 𝛻𝜓 = 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜓 = (2𝑥)𝑖̂ + (2𝑦)𝑗̂ + (−1)𝑘̂

At (2, −1,2)

𝛻𝜓 = (2.2)𝑖̂ + (2. (−1))𝑗̂ + (−1)𝑘̂

̂
𝜵𝜓 = 𝟒𝒊̂ − 𝟐𝒋̂ − 𝒌

|𝛻𝜓| = √42 + (−2)2 + (−1)2

|𝛻𝜓| = √21

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 31

 Angle between surface,
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑛
̂.
1 𝑛
̂2
𝛻𝜑 𝛻𝜓
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = .
|𝛻𝜑| |𝛻𝜓|
̂ ) (𝟒𝒊̂ − 𝟐𝒋̂ − 𝒌
(𝟒𝒊̂ − 𝟐𝒋̂ + 𝟒𝒌 ̂)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = .
6 √21
16 + 4 − 4 16 8
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
6√21 6√21 3√21
𝟖
𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( )
𝟑√𝟐𝟏
9. Find the angle between the normal to the surface 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑧 2 at the point (4,1,2) &
(3,3, −3).
Sol: Given 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 2
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 1. 𝑦 − 0 = 𝑥. 1 − 0 = 0 − 2𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
=𝑦 =𝑥 = −2𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
Wkt, 𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝛻𝜑 = (𝑦)𝑖̂ + (𝑥)𝑗̂ + (−2𝑧)𝑘̂

At (4,1,2) At (3,3, −3)

𝛻𝜑1 = (1)𝑖̂ + (4)𝑗̂ + (−2.2)𝑘̂ 𝛻𝜑2 = (3)𝑖̂ + (3)𝑗̂ + (2.3)𝑘̂

̂
𝜵𝝋𝟏 = 𝒊̂ + 𝟒𝒋̂ − 𝟒𝒌 ̂
𝜵𝝋𝟐 = 𝟑𝒊̂ + 𝟑𝒋̂ + 𝟔𝒌

|𝛻𝜑1 | = √12 + 42 + (−4)2 |𝛻𝜑2 | = √32 + 32 + 62 = √54

|𝜵𝝋𝟏 | = √𝟑𝟑 |𝜵𝝋𝟏 | = 𝟑√𝟔

Angle between surface,

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑛
̂.
1 𝑛
̂2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 32

 𝛻𝜑 𝛻𝜑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = |𝛻𝜑1 | . |𝛻𝜑2 |
1 2

̂) (𝟑𝒊̂+𝟑𝒋̂+𝟔𝒌
(𝒊̂+𝟒𝒋̂−𝟒𝒌 ̂)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = .
√33 3√6

3+12−24 −9
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = 3.3√22
3√33.6

−1 −𝟏
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ; 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 [ ]
√22 √𝟐𝟐

Divergence of a vector function

The divergence of a vector function 𝐹⃗ = 𝑓1 𝑖̂ + 𝑓2 𝑗̂ + 𝑓3 𝑘̂ , where 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 are functions of
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧.It is denoted by 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ and is defined as
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝛻. 𝐹⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) . (𝑓1 𝑖̂ + 𝑓2 𝑗̂ + 𝑓3 𝑘̂)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟑
⃗⃗ = 𝜵. ⃗𝑭⃗ =
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭 + +
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
⃗⃗ is a scalar quantity.
Clearly 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭
Physical interpretation of Divergence
Let us consider the motion of the fluid. Consider a small rectangular parallelepiped with
edges 𝛿𝑥 , 𝛿𝑦 , 𝛿𝑧 parallel to the axes in the mass of fluid.

⃗⃗ = 𝑉𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑉𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑉𝑧 𝑘̂ be the velocity of the fluid at (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

Let 𝑉

Amount of the fluid flowing in through the face ABCD per unit time
= 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑋 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
Amount of the fluid flowing out through the face PQRS per unit time
𝜕𝑉𝑥
= [𝑉𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥
∴ The net decrease in the amount of fluid across these two faces is

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 33

 𝜕𝑉𝑥
= [𝑉𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − 𝑉𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝝏𝑽𝒙
= [𝑉𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝑉𝑥 ] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = 𝜹𝒙𝜹𝒚𝜹𝒛
𝜕𝑥 𝝏𝒙

𝜕𝑉𝑦
Similarly, the decrease in amount of fluid due to flow along the y − axis = 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑉𝑧
The decrease in amount of fluid due to flow along the z − axis = 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑧

Total decrease in amount of fluid inside the parallelepiped per unit time
𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧
=[ + + ] 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧
Hence the ratio of loss of fluid per unit volume = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= [𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘̂] . [𝑉𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑉𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑉𝑧 𝑘̂]

⃗⃗
= 𝛻. 𝑉
⃗⃗
= 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑉

Hence 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑉 ⃗⃗ gives the rate of outflow per unit volume at a point of the fluid. If
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑽⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎 everywhere in some region of space, then 𝑉 ⃗⃗ is called Solenoidal Vector function
and the fluids said to be incompressible i.e., there is no gain or loss in the volume element.
Curl of a vector function
The curl of a vector function 𝐹⃗ = 𝑓1 𝑖̂ + 𝑓2 𝑗̂ + 𝑓3 𝑘̂ is denoted by 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ and is defined as
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭⃗⃗ = 𝜵𝑿𝑭⃗⃗

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕|
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = || |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3
𝝏𝒇𝟑 𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟑 𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟏
⃗⃗ = [
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 − ] 𝒊̂ − [ − ] 𝒋̂ + [ − ̂
]𝒌
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
⃗⃗ is a vector quantity.
Clearly 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭
Physical interpretation of Curl
Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis through origin. Let the uniform angular
velocity be 𝑤⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑤1 𝑖̂ + 𝑤2 𝑗̂ + 𝑤3 𝑘̂ , 𝑤1, 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 are constants. The velocity 𝑉 ⃗⃗ of any point
P(x, y, z) on the body is given by 𝑉 ⃗⃗ = 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝑟⃗ , where 𝑟⃗ is the position vector of P.

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑤1 𝑖̂ + 𝑤2 𝑗̂ + 𝑤3 𝑘̂ and 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂

Let 𝑤
⃗⃗ = 𝑤
Consider 𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝑟⃗

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 34

 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
= |𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 |
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

⃗⃗ = (𝑤2 𝑧 − 𝑤3 𝑦)𝑖̂ − (𝑤1 𝑧 − 𝑤3 𝑥)𝑗̂ + (𝑤1 𝑦 − 𝑤2 𝑥)𝑘̂

𝑉
⃗⃗ = 𝛻𝑋𝑉
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑉 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ = 𝛻 𝑋 [(𝑤2 𝑧 − 𝑤3 𝑦)𝑖̂ − (𝑤1 𝑧 − 𝑤3 𝑥)𝑗̂ + (𝑤1 𝑦 − 𝑤2 𝑥)𝑘̂]

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑉

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗⃗ = |
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑉 |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(𝑤2 𝑧 − 𝑤3 𝑦) (𝑤3 𝑥 − 𝑤1 𝑧) (𝑤1 𝑦 − 𝑤2 𝑥)
⃗⃗ = [𝑤1 − (−𝑤1 ) ]𝑖̂ − [−𝑤2 − 𝑤2 ]𝑗̂ + [𝑤3 − (−𝑤3 )]𝑘̂
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑉
⃗⃗ = [2𝑤1 ]𝑖̂ + [2𝑤2 ]𝑗̂ + [2𝑤3 ]𝑘̂
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑉
⃗⃗ = 2[𝑤1 𝑖̂ + 𝑤2 𝑗̂ + 𝑤3 𝑘̂]
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑉

⃗⃗ = 2𝑤
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗

𝟏
⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟐 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐥𝑽
𝒘

Thus the angular velocity of rotation at any point is equal to half of the curl of the velocity.
Note:
⃗⃗ = 𝟎 , then we say that 𝐹⃗ is Solenoidal vector.
1. If 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭
⃗⃗ = 𝟎 , then we say that 𝐹⃗ is irrotational vector.
2. If 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭
3. Irrotational vector field is called as conservative field or potential field.

4. When 𝐹⃗ is irrotational there always exist a scalar point function such that 𝜵𝝋 = 𝑭
⃗⃗ ,
then 𝜑 is called a scalar potential of vector 𝐹⃗ .
Problems
1. If 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑖̂ + 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑗̂ + (𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑧)𝑘̂ , find the 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ and 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ at (2, −1,1).
𝐹 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑖̂ + 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑗̂ + (𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑧)𝑘̂
Sol: Given ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Wkt 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝛻. 𝐹⃗
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥1 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧3

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 (𝑥𝑦𝑧) + 𝜕𝑦 (3𝑥 2 𝑦) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑧)

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝑦𝑧. 1 + 3𝑥 2 . 1 + (𝑥. 2𝑧 − 𝑦 2 . 1)

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝑦𝑧 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦 2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 35

 At (2, −1,1)

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = (−1)(1) + 3. (2)2 + 2(2)(1) − (−1)2

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = −1 + 12 + 4 − 1
⃗⃗ =14
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭

Also, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 𝑋 𝐹⃗
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=| 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|
(𝑥𝑦𝑧) (3𝑥 2 𝑦) (𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑧)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [ (𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑧) − (3𝑥 2 𝑦)] 𝑖̂ − [ (𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑧) − (𝑥𝑦𝑧)] 𝑗̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
+ [ (3𝑥 2 𝑦) − (𝑥𝑦𝑧)] 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [(−2𝑦𝑧) − 0]𝑖̂ − [(𝑧 2 − 0) − (𝑥𝑦)]𝑗̂ + [(6𝑥𝑦) − (𝑥𝑧)]𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [−2𝑦𝑧]𝑖̂ − [𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦]𝑗̂ + [6𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧]𝑘̂

At (2,-1,1)

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [−2(−1)(1)]𝑖̂ − [12 − 2(−1)]𝑗̂ + [6(2)(−1) − (2)(1)]𝑘̂

̂
⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝒊̂ − 𝟑𝒋̂ − 𝟏𝟒𝒌
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭

2. Find 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ and 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ where 𝐹⃗ = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 − 3𝑥𝑦𝑧).

Sol: Let 𝜑 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 − 3𝑥𝑦𝑧
𝐹⃗ = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑

𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝜑
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘̂

̂
⃗⃗ = (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒚𝒛)𝒊̂ + (𝟑𝒚𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙𝒛)𝒋̂ + (𝟑𝒛𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙𝒚)𝒌
𝑭

Now, 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝛻. 𝐹⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦𝑧)+𝜕𝑦(3𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑧) +𝜕𝑧 (3𝑧 2 − 3𝑥𝑦)

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = (6𝑥 − 0) + (6𝑦 − 0) + (6𝑧 − 0)

⃗⃗ = 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟔𝒚 + 𝟔𝒛
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 𝑋 𝐹⃗

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 36

 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|
(3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦𝑧) (3𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑧) (3𝑧 2 − 3𝑥𝑦)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [ (3𝑧 2 − 3𝑥𝑦) − (3𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑧)] 𝑖̂ − [ (3𝑧 2 − 3𝑥𝑦) − (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦𝑧)] 𝑗̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
+ [ (3𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑧) − (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦𝑧)] 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [(0 − 3𝑥) − (0 − 3𝑥)]𝑖̂ − [(0 − 3𝑦) − (0 − 3𝑦)]𝑗̂ + [(0 − 3𝑧) − (0 − 3𝑧)]𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [−3𝑥 + 3𝑥]𝑖̂ − [−3𝑦 + 3𝑦]𝑗̂ + [−3𝑧 + 3𝑧]𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 0𝑖̂ − 0𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂

⃗⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭

3. If 𝐹⃗ = 𝛻(𝑥𝑦 3 𝑧 2 ), find 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ and 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ at (1, −1,1).

Sol: Let 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 3 𝑧 2

𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝜑
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘̂

̂
⃗⃗ = (𝒚𝟑 𝒛𝟐 )𝒊̂ + (𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒛𝟐 )𝒋̂ + (𝟐𝒙𝒚𝟑 𝒛)𝒌
𝑭

Now, 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝛻. 𝐹⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 (𝑦 3 𝑧 2 )+𝜕𝑦(3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 ) +𝜕𝑧 (2𝑥𝑦 3 𝑧)

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = (0) + (6𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 ) + (2𝑥𝑦 3 )

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 3

At (1, −1,1)
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 6(1)(−1)(1)2 + 2(1)(−1)3 = −6 − 2
⃗⃗ = −𝟖
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭

Also, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 𝑋 𝐹⃗

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|
(𝒚𝟑 𝟐 )
𝒛 (𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝟐 )𝒛 (𝟐𝒙𝒚𝟑 𝒛)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 37

 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [ (𝟐𝒙𝒚𝟑 𝒛) − (𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒛𝟐 )] 𝑖̂ − [ (𝟐𝒙𝒚𝟑 𝒛) − (𝒚𝟑 𝒛𝟐 )] 𝑗̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝟑 𝟐
+ [ (𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒛𝟐 ) − (𝒚 𝒛 )] 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [(𝟔𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒛𝟐 ) − (𝟔𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒛𝟐 )]𝑖̂ − [(𝟐𝒚𝟑 𝒛) − (𝟐𝒚𝟑 𝒛)]𝑗̂ + [(𝟑𝒚𝟐 𝒛𝟐 ) − (𝟑𝒚𝟐 𝒛𝟐 )]𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 0𝑖̂ − 0𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂

⃗⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭

4. If 𝐹⃗ = (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑖̂ + (𝑥𝑧 3 + 𝑦 4 )𝑗̂ − 2𝑥 3 𝑧 2 𝑘̂ , find 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ ) at (2, −1,0).

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑖̂ + (𝑥𝑧 3 + 𝑦 4 )𝑗̂ − 2𝑥 3 𝑧 2 𝑘̂

Wkt, 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝛻. 𝐹⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧)+𝜕𝑦(𝑥𝑧 3 + 𝑦 4 ) +𝜕𝑧 (−2𝑥 3 𝑧 2 )

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = (6𝑥𝑦) + (0 + 4𝑦 3 ) + (−4𝑥 3 𝑧)

⃗⃗ = 𝟔𝒙𝒚 + 𝟒𝒚𝟑 −𝟒𝒙𝟑 𝒛 = 𝝋(𝑺𝒂𝒚)
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 6𝑦 − 12𝑥 2 𝑧 = 6𝑥 + 12𝑦 2 = −4𝑥 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Now, 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ ) = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝜑

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ ) = 𝛻𝜑
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ ) = (6𝑦 − 12𝑥 2 𝑧)𝑖̂ + (6𝑥 + 12𝑦 2 )𝑗̂ + (−4𝑥 3 )𝑘̂

At (2, −1,0)

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ ) = (6(−1) − 0)𝑖̂ + (6(2) + 12(−1)2 )𝑗̂ + (−4(2)3 )𝑘̂

̂
⃗⃗) = 𝟔𝒊̂ + 𝟐𝟒𝒋̂ − 𝟑𝟐𝒌
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅(𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭

6. If 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑥𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑧𝑘̂ , find 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ ) .

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑥𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑧𝑘̂

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 𝑋 𝐹⃗ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|
(𝒙𝟐 ) (𝒙𝒚) (𝒙𝒛)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [𝜕𝑦 (𝑥𝑧) − 𝜕𝑧 (𝑥𝑦)] 𝑖̂ − [𝜕𝑥 (𝑥𝑧) − 𝜕𝑧 (𝑥 2 )] 𝑗̂ + [𝜕𝑥 (𝑥𝑦) − 𝜕𝑦 (𝑥 2 )] 𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [(0) − (0)]𝑖̂ − [(𝑧) − (0)]𝑗̂ + [(𝑦) − (0)]𝑘̂

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 38

 ̂
⃗⃗ = 𝟎𝒊̂ − 𝒛𝒋̂ + 𝒚𝒌
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭
Now,

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ ) = 𝛻𝑋(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ )

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ ) = | |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(𝟎) (−𝒛) (𝒚)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ ) = [𝜕𝑦 (𝑦) − 𝜕𝑧 (−𝑧)] 𝑖̂ − [𝜕𝑥 (𝑦) − 𝜕𝑧 (0)] 𝑗̂ + [𝜕𝑥 (−𝑧) − 𝜕𝑦 (0)] 𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ ) = [(1) − (−1)]𝑖̂ − [(0) − (0)]𝑗̂ + [(0) − (0)]𝑘̂

⃗⃗) = 𝟐𝒊̂
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍(𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭
𝑥𝑖̂+𝑦𝑗̂
7. Show that 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ) is both solenoidal and irrotational.
𝑥 𝑦
Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2) 𝑖̂ + (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ) 𝑗̂

Wkt, 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝛻. 𝐹⃗
𝜕 𝑥 𝜕 𝑦
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 ((𝑥 2 +𝑦 2))+𝜕𝑦 ((𝑥 2 +𝑦 2))

(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ).1−𝑥.2𝑥 (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 ).1−𝑦.2𝑦

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )2
+ (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )2

𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −2𝑥 2 +𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −2𝑦 2
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )2

⃗⃗ = 𝟎
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭

∴ ⃗𝑭⃗ is Solenoidal.

Now, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 𝑋 𝐹⃗
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = || 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 |
|
𝑥 𝑦
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ) (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )
0

𝜕 𝜕 𝑦 𝜕 𝜕 𝑥
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [ (0) − ( 2 )] 𝑖̂ − [ (0) − ( )] 𝑗̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝜕 𝑦 𝜕 𝑥
+[ ( 2 2
)− ( 2 )] 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 𝜕𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )
−2𝑥𝑦 2𝑥𝑦
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [(0) − (0)]𝑖̂ − [(0) − (0)]𝑗̂ + [(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ) + (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2)] 𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 0𝑖̂ − 0𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂

⃗⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 39

 ∴ ⃗𝑭⃗ is irrotational.

8. P.T 𝐹⃗ = (𝑦 + 𝑧)𝑖̂ + (𝑧 + 𝑥)𝑗̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘̂ is irrotational. Also find a scalar point function
𝜑 such that 𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝜑.

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = (𝑦 + 𝑧)𝑖̂ + (𝑧 + 𝑥)𝑗̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 𝑋 𝐹⃗

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = | |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(𝑦 + 𝑧) (𝑧 + 𝑥) (𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [ (𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑧 + 𝑥)] 𝑖̂ − [ (𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑦 + 𝑧)] 𝑗̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
+ [ (𝑧 + 𝑥) − (𝑦 + 𝑧)] 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [(1) − (1)]𝑖̂ − [(1) − (1)]𝑗̂ + [(1) − (1)]𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 0𝑖̂ − 0𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂

𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ⃗⃗ ∴ 𝑭
⃗⃗ = 𝟎 ⃗⃗ is irrotational.

To find 𝝋

Consider 𝛻𝜑 = 𝐹⃗
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ = (𝑦 + 𝑧)𝑖̂ + (𝑧 + 𝑥)𝑗̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
=𝑦+𝑧 =𝑧+𝑥 =𝑥+𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Integrating we get
𝜑 = (𝑦 + 𝑧) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 𝜑 = (𝑧 + 𝑥) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑦 𝜑 = (𝑥 + 𝑦) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑧
𝜑 = (𝑦 + 𝑧)𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜑 = (𝑧 + 𝑥)𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑧) 𝜑 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑧 + 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜑 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜑 = 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑧) 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
∴ 𝝋 = 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒙𝒛 + 𝒚𝒛 , where 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑦𝑧 , 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑧 , 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦

9. If 𝐹⃗ = (𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝑖̂ + (3𝑥 2 − 𝑧)𝑗̂ + (𝑏𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦)𝑘̂ ; if 𝐹⃗ is irrotational find constants 𝑎

and 𝑏. Also find scalar function 𝜑 such that 𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝜑.

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = (𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝑖̂ + (3𝑥 2 − 𝑧)𝑗̂ + (𝑏𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦)𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 𝑋 𝐹⃗

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 40

 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = || ||
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 ) (3𝑥 2 − 𝑧) (𝑏𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [ (𝑏𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦) − (3𝑥 2 − 𝑧)] 𝑖̂ − [ (𝑏𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦) − (𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )] 𝑗̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
+ [ (3𝑥 2 − 𝑧) − (𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [(−1) − (−1)]𝑖̂ − [(𝑏𝑧 2 ) − (3𝑧 2 )]𝑗̂ + [(6𝑥) − (𝑎𝑥)]𝑘̂𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗

= 0𝑖̂ − (𝑏𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 2 )𝑗̂ + (6𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥)𝑘̂

Since 𝐹⃗ is irrotational,

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = ⃗⃗
0

0𝑖̂ − (𝑏𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 2 )𝑗̂ + (6𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥)𝑘̂ = 0𝑖̂ − 0𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂

𝑏𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 2 = 0 6𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝑧 2 (𝑏 − 3) = 0 𝑥(6 − 𝑎) = 0
𝑏−3=0 6−𝑎 =0
𝒃=𝟑 𝒂=𝟔
̂
⃗⃗ = (𝟔𝒙𝒚 + 𝒛𝟑 )𝒊̂ + (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝒛)𝒋̂ + (𝟑𝒙𝒛𝟐 − 𝒚)𝒌
Thus, 𝑭
To find 𝝋

Consider 𝛻𝜑 = 𝐹⃗
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ = (6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝑖̂ + (3𝑥 2 − 𝑧)𝑗̂ + (3𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦)𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
= 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑧 = 3𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Integrating we get
𝜑 = 6𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑧 3 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 𝜑 = 3𝑥 2 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑧 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑦 𝜑=
3𝑥 ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑦 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑧
𝑥2 𝑧3
𝜑 = 6𝑦 ( 2 ) + 𝑧 3 𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜑 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑧) 𝜑 = 3𝑥 ( 3 ) − 𝑦𝑧 +
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜑 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑧 3 𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜑 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑧) 𝜑 = 𝑥𝑧 3 − 𝑦𝑧 +
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
∴ 𝝋 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒙𝒛𝟑 − 𝒚𝒛 , where 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑧) = −𝑦𝑧 , 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑧 3 , 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥 2 𝑦

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 41

 VECTOR INTEGRATION
Line Integral
Consider a curve 𝐶 in space which consists of infinitesimally small elements of length

𝑑𝑟. Then the line integral of a vector 𝐴⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) along the curve 𝐶 is defined to be the sum of
the scalar products of 𝐴⃗ ,𝑑𝑟⃗ and is represented by ∫ 𝐴⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ .
𝐶

If 𝐹⃗ is the force acted upon by a particle in displacing it along the curve 𝐶 then
∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ represents the total work done by a force , it also represents the circulation of 𝐹⃗
about 𝐶 where 𝐹⃗ represents the velocity of a fluid.

𝐹⃗ is said to be irrotational if ∮𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0.

Problems
1. If 𝐹⃗ = (5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝑗̂, evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ where 𝐶 is the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 from
the point (1,1) to the point (2,8).

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = (5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝑗̂

𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂

Consider, 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [(5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝑗̂]. [𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂]

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝑑𝑦 --- (1)

In 𝐶 : 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 Points: (1,1) (2,8)
𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

(1)⇒ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (5𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥). 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (5𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 5 − 12𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥

2

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫(5𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 5 − 12𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥

𝐶 1

𝑥=2 𝑥=2 𝑥=2 𝑥=2

𝑥5 𝑥3 𝑥6 𝑥4
⃗
∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 5 [ ] − 6[ ] + 6[ ] − 12 [ ]
5 𝑥=1 3 𝑥=1 6 𝑥=1 4 𝑥=1
𝐶

= (25 − 1) − 2(23 − 1) + (26 − 1) − 3(24 − 1)

= 31 − 14 + 63 − 45

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 42

 ⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒓
∫𝑭 ⃗⃗ = 𝟑𝟓
𝑪

2. Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ along the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 , where 𝐹⃗ = 3𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ − 𝑦𝑗̂ + 2𝑧𝑘̂ .

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = 3𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ − 𝑦𝑗̂ + 2𝑧𝑘̂

𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂
Consider, 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [3𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ − 𝑦𝑗̂ + 2𝑧𝑘̂]. [𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂]
𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (3𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (−𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + (2𝑧)𝑑𝑧 --- (1)
In 𝐶 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 , 𝑧 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 22 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 )
Put 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ; 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ; 𝑧=0
𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ; 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 ; 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃 ; 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜃: 𝜃 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜃 = 2𝜋

(1)⇒ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (3. 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)(−2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃) + (−2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃). (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃)

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (−24𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝜃

2𝜋

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ (−24𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝜃

𝐶 𝜃=0

3 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = −24 [ 3 ] − 4[ 2
] {∫[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
}
0 0

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = −8(0 − 0) − 2(0 − 0) {𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 = 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0}

𝐶

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0.
𝐶

3. If 𝐹⃗ = (3𝑥 2 + 6𝑦)𝑖̂ − (14𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂ + (20𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑘̂, evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ from the point (0,0,0) to

(1,1,1) along the curve given by 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑡 3 .

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = (3𝑥 2 + 6𝑦)𝑖̂ − (14𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂ + (20𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑘̂

𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂
Consider, 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [(3𝑥 2 + 6𝑦)𝑖̂ − (14𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂ + (20𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑘̂]. [𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂]
𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (3𝑥 2 + 6𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (−14𝑦𝑧)𝑑𝑦 + (20𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑧 --- (1)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 43

 In 𝐶 : 𝑥 = 𝑡 ; 𝑦 = 𝑡2 ; 𝑧 = 𝑡3
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑡𝑑t ; 𝑑𝑧 = 3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑡: 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 1

(1)⇒ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (3𝑡 2 + 6𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡 − (14𝑡 2 𝑡 3 ). 2𝑡𝑑𝑡 + (20. 𝑡. 𝑡 6 )3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (9𝑡 2 − 28𝑡 6 + 60𝑡 9 )𝑑𝑡

1

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫(9𝑡 2 − 28𝑡 6 + 60𝑡 9 )𝑑𝑡

𝐶 0

𝑡=1 𝑡=1 𝑡=1

𝑡3 𝑡7 𝑡10
⃗
∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 9 [ ] − 28 [ ] + 60 [ ]
3 𝑡=0 7 𝑡=0 10 𝑡=0
𝐶

= 3(1 − 0) − 4(1 − 0) + 6(1 − 0)

=3−4+6

∫ ⃗𝑭⃗ . 𝒅𝒓
⃗⃗ = 𝟓
𝑪

4. If 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 )𝑖̂ + (𝑥𝑦)𝑗̂, evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ from (0,0) to (1,1) along i) the line 𝑦 = 𝑥

ii) the parabola 𝑦 = √𝑥.

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑥𝑦𝑗̂

𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂

Consider, 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [(𝑥 2 )𝑖̂ + (𝑥𝑦)𝑗̂]. [𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂]

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 --- (1)
i) Along 𝑦 = 𝑥 Point: (0,0) 𝑡𝑜 (1,1)
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥

(1)⇒ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥. 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐶 0

𝑥=1
𝑥3
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 2 [ ]
3 𝑥=0
𝐶

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 44

 2
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (1 − 0)
3
𝐶

𝟐
∫ ⃗𝑭⃗ . 𝒅𝒓
⃗⃗ =
𝟑
𝑪

ii) Along 𝑦 = √𝑥 ; 𝑦2 = 𝑥 Point: (0,0) 𝑡𝑜 (1,1)

2𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥

(1)⇒ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (𝑦 4 )2𝑦𝑑𝑦 + (𝑦 2 . 𝑦)𝑑𝑦

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (2𝑦 5 + 𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑦

1

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫(2𝑦 5 + 𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑦

𝐶 0

𝑦=1 𝑦=1
𝑦6 𝑦4
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 2 [ ] +[ ]
6 𝑦=0 4 𝑦=0
𝐶

1 1
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (1 − 0) + (1 − 0)
3 4
𝐶

1 1
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = +
3 4
𝐶

𝟕
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒓
∫𝑭 ⃗⃗ =
𝟏𝟐
𝑪

5. Find the total work done by a force 𝐹⃗ = 2𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ − 4𝑧𝑗̂ + 5𝑥𝑘̂ along the curve 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 ,
y=(2t+1) , 𝑧 = 𝑡 3 from the point 𝑡 = 1 to 𝑡 = 2.

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = 2𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ − 4𝑧𝑗̂ + 5𝑥𝑘̂

𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂
Consider, 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [2𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ − 4𝑧𝑗̂ + 5𝑥𝑘̂]. [𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂ ]
𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 4𝑧𝑑𝑦 + 5𝑥𝑑𝑧 --- (1)
In 𝐶 : 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 ; 𝑦 = 2𝑡 + 1 ; 𝑧 = 𝑡3
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑑t; 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑑t ; 𝑑𝑧 = 3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑡: 𝑡 = 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 2

(1)⇒ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (2𝑡 2 (2𝑡 + 1))2𝑡𝑑𝑡 − 4(𝑡 3 ). 2𝑑𝑡 + (5𝑡 2 )3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 45

 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (8𝑡 4 + 4𝑡 3 − 8𝑡 3 + 15𝑡 4 )𝑑𝑡

𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (23𝑡 4 − 4𝑡 3 )𝑑𝑡

The work done by a force = ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗

2

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫(23𝑡 4 − 4𝑡 3 )𝑑𝑡

𝐶 𝑡=1
2 2
𝑡5 𝑡4
= 23 [ 5 ] − 4[4]
𝑡=1 𝑡=1
23
= (25 − 1) − (24 − 1)
5

23(31) 713−75
= − 15 =
5 5

𝟔𝟑𝟖
Work done , ∫𝑪 ⃗𝑭⃗ . 𝒅𝒓
⃗⃗ = units
𝟓

6. Find the total work done by a force 𝐹⃗ = 3𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + (2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ when it moves
𝑡2 3𝑡 3
a particle from the point 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 2 along the curve 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = ,𝑧= .
4 8

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = 3𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + (2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂

𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂
Consider, 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [3𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + (2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂]. [𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂]
𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑧𝑑𝑧 --- (1)
𝑡2 3𝑡 3
In 𝐶 : 𝑥 = 𝑡 ; 𝑦= ; 𝑧=
4 8

2𝑡 𝑡 (3)3𝑡 2 9𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑t ; 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
4 8 8

𝑡: 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 2
3𝑡 3 𝑡2 𝑡 3𝑡 3 9𝑡 2
(1)⇒ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 + [2𝑡 ( ) − 4 ] 2 𝑑𝑡 + . 𝑑𝑡
8 8 8

3𝑡 𝑡 27𝑡5 3 5
𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (3𝑡 2 + 8 − 8 + 64 ) 𝑑𝑡

𝑡 3 51𝑡 5
𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (3𝑡 2 − + ) 𝑑𝑡
8 64

The work done by a force = ∫𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐹. 𝑑𝑟⃗
2
𝑡 3 51𝑡 5
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ (3𝑡 2 − + ) 𝑑𝑡
8 64
𝐶 𝑡=0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 46

 2 2 2
𝑡3 1 𝑡4 51 𝑡 6
= 3[3] − 8[4] + 64 [ 6 ]
𝑡=0 𝑡=0 𝑡=0
1 51
= (23 − 0) − 32 (24 − 0) + 384 (26 − 0)
166 51
=8− + 384 (64)
32

1 51
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 8 − +
2 6
𝐶

48 − 3 + 51
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ =
6
𝐶

96
∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ =
6
𝐶

⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒓
Work done, ∫𝑪 𝑭 ⃗⃗ = 𝟏𝟔 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔

Green’s Theorem
Let 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) be two functions defined in region ′𝑅′ and the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 with
𝝏𝑴 𝝏𝑵
simple closed curve 𝐶 has its boundary , then ∮𝑪 𝑴𝒅𝒙 + 𝑵𝒅𝒚 = ∬𝑹 [ 𝝏𝒙 − 𝝏𝒚 ] 𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒙

Note:
𝟏
1. 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 = ∬𝑹 𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 ∫𝑪 (𝒙𝒅𝒚 − 𝒚𝒅𝒙)

Problems

1. Evaluate ∫𝑪 (𝒙𝒚 − 𝒙𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒅𝒚 where 𝐶 is the closed curve bounded by 𝑦 = 0,

𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 𝑥.
𝝏𝑵 𝝏𝑴
Sol: Green’s Theorem:∮𝑪 𝑴𝒅𝒙 + 𝑵𝒅𝒚 = ∬𝑹 [ 𝝏𝒙 − ] 𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒙 --- (1)
𝝏𝒚

Given ∫𝐶 (𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦

Here, M = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑁 = 𝑥2𝑦
𝝏𝑴 𝝏𝑵
=𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙𝒚
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙

In ‘R’
𝑥: 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 1
𝑦: 𝑦 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 𝑥

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 47

 1 𝑥
(1) ⇒ ∫𝐶 (𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=0(2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1 𝑦2
= ∫𝑥=0 [2𝑥 [ 2 ] − 𝑥[𝑦]0𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
0

1
= ∫𝑥=0[𝑥(𝑥 2 − 0) − 𝑥(𝑥 − 0)]𝑑𝑥
1

∫ (𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝐶 𝑥=0
1 1
𝑥4 𝑥3
= [4] −[3]
𝑥=0 𝑥=0
1 1 3−4
=4−3= 12

−𝟏
∫ (𝒙𝒚 − 𝒙𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒅𝒚 =
𝟏𝟐
𝑪

2. Use Green’s theorem to evaluate ∫𝑪 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒅𝒚 where 𝐶 is the circle

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 traced in the positive sign.

𝝏𝑵 𝝏𝑴
Sol: Green’s Theorem: ∮𝑪 𝑴𝒅𝒙 + 𝑵𝒅𝒚 = ∬𝑹 [ 𝝏𝒙 − ] 𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒙 --- (1)
𝝏𝒚

Given ∫𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦

Here, M = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑁 = 3𝑥 2
𝝏𝑴 𝝏𝑵
= 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟔𝒙𝒚
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙

In ‘R’
𝑥: 𝑥 = −2 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 2

𝑦: 𝑦 = −√4 − 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥 2
2 √4−𝑥 2
(1)⇒ ∫𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑥=−2 ∫𝑦=−√4−𝑥 2(6𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

√4−𝑥 2 √4−𝑥 2
2 𝑦2 𝑦2
= ∫𝑥=−2 [6𝑥 [ 2 ] 2
− 2[ 2 ] ] 𝑑𝑥
−√4−𝑥 −√4−𝑥 2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 48

 2
2 2 2 2
= ∫ [3𝑥 [[√4 − 𝑥 2 ] − [−√4 − 𝑥 2 ] ] − [[√4 − 𝑥 2 ] − [−√4 − 𝑥 2 ] ]] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=−2

∫ (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥
+ 3𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [3𝑥[(4 − 𝑥 2 ) − (4 − 𝑥 2 )] − [(4 − 𝑥 2 ) − (4 − 𝑥 2 )]]𝑑𝑥
2

𝐶 𝑥=−2

∫𝑪 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒅𝒚 = 𝟎.

3.Use Green’s theorem to find area between the parabola 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦 and 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥.
𝟏
Sol: Wkt 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 = ∬𝑹 𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 ∫𝑪 (𝒙𝒅𝒚 − 𝒚𝒅𝒙)
1
Thus, A = 2 ∫𝐶 (𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥)
1
A = 2 [∫𝑂𝐴(𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥) + ∫𝐴𝑂(𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥)] --- (1)

Along OA: Along AO:

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒𝒚 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒙
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑦= 𝑥=
4 4
2𝑥 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦
4 4
𝒙 𝒚
𝒅𝒚 = 𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒅𝒚

In ‘R’
𝑥: 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 4𝑦: 𝑦 = 4 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 0
1 4 𝑥 𝑥2 0 𝑦2 𝑦
(1) ⇒ A = 2 [∫𝑥=0 (𝑥. 2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥) + ∫𝑦=4 ( 4 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦. 2 𝑑𝑦 )]
4

1 4 𝑥2 𝑥2 0 𝑦2 𝑦2
A = 2 [∫𝑥=0 ( 2 − ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑦=4 ( 4 − ) 𝑑𝑦]
4 2

1 4 𝑥2 0 𝑦2
A = 2 [∫𝑥=0 ( 4 ) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑦=4 ( 4 ) 𝑑𝑦]

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 49

 4 0
1
A= [ ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦]
2∗4
𝑥=0 𝑦=4

4 0
1 𝑥3 𝑦3
A = [[ ] − [ ] ]
8 3 0 3 4

1
A= [(43 − 0) − (0 − 43 )]
8∗3
1
A= [64 + 64]
24
128
A=
24
𝟏𝟔
𝑨= Sq.Units
𝟑

Stoke’s Theorem

If 𝑆 is a surface bounded by a simple closed curve 𝐶 and if 𝐹⃗ is any continuously

differentiable vector function then

⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒓
∮𝑭 ⃗⃗ . 𝒏
⃗⃗ = ∬ 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ⃗⃗) . 𝒏
̂ 𝒅𝒔 = ∬(𝜵𝑿𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔
𝑪 𝑺 𝑺

Problems

1.Verify Stoke’s theorem for 𝐹⃗ = 𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑘̂ where 𝑆 is the upper half of the sphere
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1 and 𝐶 is its boundary.
Sol: By Stoke’s theorem,

∮𝑪 ⃗𝑭⃗. 𝒅𝒓
⃗⃗ = ∬𝑺 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭⃗⃗ . 𝒏
̂ 𝒅𝒔 , 𝐶 is the circle in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 whose centre is the origin
and radius equal to unity.
i.e., 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 and
𝑧=0
𝑑𝑧 = 0
Put 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ; 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

LHS, ∮𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∮𝐶 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑧𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑑𝑧

2𝜋
= ∫𝜃=0(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)(−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃) + (0) + (0)
2𝜋
= − ∫𝜃=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
= − ∫𝜃=0 𝑑𝜃
2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 50

 1 2𝜋
= − ∫𝜃=0(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 2𝜋
= − 2 {[𝜃]2𝜋
0 −[ ] }
2 0

1 1
= − 2 {[2𝜋 − 0] − 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛0]}

1
∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = − (2𝜋)
2
𝐶

∮ ⃗𝑭⃗. 𝒅𝒓
⃗⃗ = −𝝅
𝑪

Now, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝑋𝐹⃗

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
=|𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦 𝑧 𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= [𝜕𝑦 (𝑥) − 𝜕𝑧 (𝑧)] 𝑖̂ − [𝜕𝑥 (𝑥) − 𝜕𝑧 (𝑦)] 𝑗̂ + [𝜕𝑥 (𝑧) − 𝜕𝑦 (𝑦)] 𝑘̂

= [0 − 1]𝑖̂ − [1 − 0]𝑗̂ + [0 − 1]𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂

𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂

𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = 0. 𝑖̂ + 0. 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂ (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑧 = 0, 𝑑𝑧 = 0)

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = (−𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ ). (0. 𝑖̂ + 0. 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂)

⃗⃗. 𝒏
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔 = −𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚

RHS, ∬𝑆 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∬𝑆 −𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

∬ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = − ∬ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑆 𝑆

⃗⃗ . 𝒏
∬𝑺 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔 = −𝝅 (𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 ∬𝑆 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 =
𝜋(1)2 = 𝜋)

LHS = RHS

2. Evaluate ∮𝐶 (𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦) by Stoke’s theorem where 𝐶 is the square in

𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 with
vertices (1,0) (−1,0) (0,1) (0, −1).

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 51

 Sol: Given ∮𝐶 (𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦)

∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∮ (𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦)

𝐶 𝐶

Here, 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂

Now, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝑋𝐹⃗

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|
2
𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 0
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= [𝜕𝑦 (0) − 𝜕𝑧 (𝑥𝑦 2 )] 𝑖̂ − [𝜕𝑥 (0) − 𝜕𝑧 (𝑥𝑦)] 𝑗̂ + [𝜕𝑥 (𝑥𝑦 2 ) − 𝜕𝑦 (𝑥𝑦)] 𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [0 − 0]𝑖̂ − [0 − 0]𝑗̂ + [𝑦 2 − 𝑥]𝑘̂

𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = (0. 𝑖̂ − 0. 𝑗̂ + [𝑦 2 − 𝑥]𝑘̂ ). (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂)

⃗⃗. 𝒏
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔 = [𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙]𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚

⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒓
Wkt , ∮𝑪 𝑭 ⃗⃗ . 𝒏
⃗⃗ = ∬𝑹 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔

= ∬𝑅 [𝑦 2 − 𝑥]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

1 1
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒓
∮𝑭 ⃗⃗ = ∫ ∫ [𝑦 2 − 𝑥]𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑪 𝑥=−1 𝑦=−1

1
1 𝑦3
= ∫𝑥=−1 {[ 3 ] − 𝑥[𝑦]1−1 } 𝑑𝑥
−1

1 1
= ∫𝑥=−1 [3 [1 − (−1)] − 𝑥[1 − (−1)]] 𝑑𝑥

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 52

 1
2
∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ [ − 2𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
3
𝐶 𝑥=−1
1
2 1 𝑥2
∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [𝑥] − 2 [ ]
3 −1 2 −1
𝐶

2
∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [1 − (−1)] − [(1)2 − (−1)2 ]
3
𝐶

2
∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = [2] − [0]
3
𝐶

𝟒
∮ ⃗𝑭⃗. 𝒅𝒓
⃗⃗ =
𝟑
𝑪

3. Evaluate ∮𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 taken round the rectangle bounded by 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑎,

𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑏 using Stoke’s theorem .

Sol: Given ∮𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦

∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∮ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦

𝐶 𝐶

Here, 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ − 2𝑥𝑦𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂

Now, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝑋𝐹⃗

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=| 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) −2𝑥𝑦 0
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= [𝜕𝑦 (0) − 𝜕𝑧 (−2𝑥𝑦)] 𝑖̂ − [𝜕𝑥 (0) − 𝜕𝑧 ((𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ))] 𝑗̂ + [𝜕𝑥 (−2𝑥𝑦) −
𝜕
((𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ))] 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑦

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = [0 − 0]𝑖̂ − [0 − 0]𝑗̂ + [−2𝑦 − 2𝑦]𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 0𝑖̂ − 0𝑗̂ − 4𝑦𝑘̂

𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = (0. 𝑖̂ − 0. 𝑗̂ − 4𝑦𝑘̂ ). (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂)

⃗⃗. 𝒏
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔 = −𝟒𝒚𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 53

 ⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒓
Wkt , ∮𝑪 𝑭 ⃗⃗ . 𝒏
⃗⃗ = ∬𝑹 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔

= ∬𝑅 −4𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝑎 𝑏
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒓
∮𝑪 𝑭 ⃗⃗ = −4 ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=0 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑏
𝑎 𝑦2
= −4 ∫𝑥=0 {[ 2 ] } 𝑑𝑥
0

𝑎 𝑏2
= −4 ∫𝑥=0 {[ 2 − 0]} 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑏2
∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = −4. ∫ 1. 𝑑𝑥
2
𝐶 𝑥=0

∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = −2𝑏 2 [𝑥]𝑎0

𝐶

∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = −2𝑏 2 (𝑎 − 0)
𝐶

⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒓
∮𝑭 ⃗⃗ = −𝟐𝒂𝒃𝟐
𝑪

4. Using Stoke’s theorem to evaluate ∮𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ where 𝐹⃗ = 𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑘̂ and 𝐶 is the
boundary of the upper half of the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1 .

Sol: Given 𝐹⃗ = 𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑘̂

𝐶 is the circle in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 whose centre is the origin and radius equal to unity.
i.e., 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 and 𝑧=0
𝑑𝑧 = 0
Now, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝑋𝐹⃗

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 54

 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
=|𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦 𝑧 𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= [𝜕𝑦 (𝑥) − 𝜕𝑧 (𝑧)] 𝑖̂ − [𝜕𝑥 (𝑥) − 𝜕𝑧 (𝑦)] 𝑗̂ + [𝜕𝑥 (𝑧) − 𝜕𝑦 (𝑦)] 𝑘̂

= [0 − 1]𝑖̂ − [1 − 0]𝑗̂ + [0 − 1]𝑘̂

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂

𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂

𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = 0. 𝑖̂ + 0. 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂ (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑧 = 0, 𝑑𝑧 = 0)

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 = (−𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ ). (0. 𝑖̂ + 0. 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘̂)

⃗⃗. 𝒏
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔 = −𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚
By Stoke’s theorem,

∮ ⃗𝑭⃗. 𝒅𝒓 ⃗⃗ . 𝒏
⃗⃗ = ∬ 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑭 ̂ 𝒅𝒔
𝑪 𝑺

∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∬ −𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝑆

∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = − ∬ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝑆

⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒓
∮𝑪 𝑭 ⃗⃗ = −𝝅 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∬𝑆 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 = 𝜋(1)2 = 𝜋)

Problem on flux

If 𝐹⃗ = 2𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑧𝑘̂ and 𝑆 is the rectangular parallelepiped bounded by 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 =

0, 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 3.Find the flux across S.

Sol: Here𝐹⃗ = 2𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑧𝑘̂

Now, 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝛻. 𝐹⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= [𝜕𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘̂] . [2𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑧𝑘̂ ]

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 (2𝑥𝑦) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑦𝑧 2 )+𝜕𝑧 (𝑥𝑧)

⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝒚 + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒙
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝑭

Flux across S = ∬𝑆 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 55

 By divergence theorem, ∬𝑆 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∭𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑣
3 1 2

∬ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ ∫ ∫(𝟐𝒚 + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒙 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑆 𝑧=0 𝑦=0 𝑥=0

2
3 1 𝑦2
= ∫𝑧=0 ∫𝑦=0 [(2𝑦 + 𝑧 2 ) [𝑥]20 + [ 2 ] ] 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
0
3 1
= ∫𝑧=0 ∫𝑦=0(4𝑦 + 2𝑧 2 + 2) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
1
3 𝑦2
= ∫𝑧=0 {4 [ 2 ] + (2𝑧 2 + 2)[𝑦]10 } 𝑑𝑧
0
3
= ∫𝑧=0{2 + 2𝑧 2 + 2}𝑑𝑧
3
= ∫𝑧=0{2𝑧 2 + 4}𝑑𝑧

3
𝑧3
⃗
∬ 𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = 2 [ ] + 4[𝑧]30
3 0
𝑆

= 2(9 − 0) + 4(3 − 0)

∬ ⃗𝑭⃗ . 𝒏
̂ 𝒅𝒔 = 𝟑𝟎
𝑺

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 56

 MODULE-3
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Definition
An equation involving one or more partial derivatives of a function of two or more variables
is called a Partial differential equation[PDE].
The order of a PDE is the order of the highest derivative and the degree of highest order
derivative after clearing the equation of fractional powers.
A PDE is said to be linear if it is of first degree in the dependent variable and its partial
derivatives.
If each term of the PDE contains either the dependent variable or one of its partial
derivatives, the PDE is said to be homogeneous. Otherwise it is said to be a
nonhomogeneous PDE.
Examples
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
1. 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 = 0 [𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 1, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 1, 𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐷𝐸]

𝜕2 𝑧
2. = 𝑥𝑦 [𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 2, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 1, 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐷𝐸]
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
3. = 𝜕𝑦 + 2𝑧 [𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 2, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 1, 𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐷𝐸]
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧
4. + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0 [𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 2, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 1, 𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐷𝐸]
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕3 𝑧
5. 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 = cos(2𝑥 + 3𝑦) [𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 3, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 1, 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐷𝐸]

𝜕2 𝑢
6. 𝜕𝑥 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 [𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 2, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 1, 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐷𝐸]

𝜕2 𝑧
7. 𝜕𝑥 2 − 16𝑧 = 0 [𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 2, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 1, 𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐷𝐸]

𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕𝑢
8. + 4 𝜕𝑦 = 0 [𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 2, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 1, 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝐻𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐷𝐸]
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

Formation of PDE by eliminating arbitrary constants and arbitrary functions

Note:
If 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) , then
𝜕𝑧
𝑧𝑥 = =𝑝
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑧
𝑧𝑦 = =𝑞
𝜕𝑦

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 57

 𝜕 2𝑧
𝑧𝑥𝑥 = 2=𝑟
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 2𝑧
𝑧𝑥𝑦 = =𝑠
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
𝜕 2𝑧
𝑧𝑦𝑦 = =𝑡
𝜕𝑦 2
Problems
Form the PDE by eliminating the arbitrary constant in the following
1. 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑦 + 𝑏)
Sol: Given 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑦 + 𝑏) --- (1)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ partially
𝜕𝑧
= (𝑦 + 𝑏). 1 ⇒ 𝒑 = (𝒚 + 𝒃)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑧
Also, = (𝑥 + 𝑎). 1 ⇒ 𝒒 = (𝒙 + 𝒂)
𝜕𝑦

(1) ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑞. 𝑝
𝒛 = 𝒑𝒒 , is the required PDE
𝑥2 𝑦2
2. 2𝑧 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2

𝑥2 𝑦2
Sol: Given 2𝑧 = 2 + --- (1)
𝑎 𝑏2

Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ partially

𝜕𝑧 2𝑥
2 =
𝜕𝑥 𝑎2
𝑥
⇒ 𝑝 = 𝑎2
Multiply by ‘𝑥’
𝒙𝟐
𝒑𝒙 = 𝟐
𝒂
𝜕𝑧 2𝑦
Also, 2 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑏2
𝑦
⇒ 𝑞 = 𝑏2
Multiply by ‘𝑦’

𝒚𝟐
𝒒𝒚 = 𝒃𝟐

(1) ⇒ 𝟐𝒛 = 𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒𝒚, is the required PDE.

3. 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 58

 Sol: Given 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1
𝑧 2 = 1 − 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑦 2 --- (1)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ partially
𝜕𝑧
2z 𝜕𝑥 = 0 − 2𝑎𝑥 − 0

⇒ 2z𝑝 = −2𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = −𝑧𝑝
Multiply by ‘𝑥’

𝒂𝒙𝟐 = −𝒛𝒑𝒙
𝜕𝑧
Also, 2z 𝜕𝑦 = 0 − 0 − 2𝑏𝑦

⇒ 2z𝑞 = −2𝑏𝑦
𝑏𝑦 = −𝑧𝑞
Multiply by ‘𝑦’
𝒃𝒚𝟐 = −𝒛𝒒𝒚
(1) ⇒ 𝑧 2 = 1 − (−𝑧𝑝𝑥) − (−𝑧𝑞𝑦)
𝑧 2 − 1 = 𝑧𝑝𝑥 + 𝑧𝑞𝑦
𝒛𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝒛(𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒𝒚) , is the required PDE.
4. 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑏
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑏 --- (1)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ partially
𝜕𝑧 1
= 𝑎. (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 ) . 2𝑥
𝜕𝑥

𝟐𝒙𝒂
⇒ 𝒑 = (𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 )

𝒑 𝟐𝒂
⇒ = (𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 ) --- (2)
𝒙

𝜕𝑧 1
Also, 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑎. (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ) . 2𝑦

𝒒 𝟐𝒂
⇒ = (𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 ) --- (3)
𝒚

From (2) and (3) , we get

𝑝 𝑞
=
𝑥 𝑦

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 59

 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑞𝑥
𝒑𝒚 − 𝒒𝒙 = 𝟎 , is the required PDE.

5. 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 + 𝑏

Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 + 𝑏 --- (1)

Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ partially
𝜕𝑧 1
=𝑦+𝑦 . 2𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2√𝑥 2 −𝑎2
𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝒑 = 𝑦 + √𝑥 2
−𝑎2
𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝒑 − 𝒚 = √𝑥 2 --- (2)
−𝑎2

𝜕𝑧
Also, 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑥. 1 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 .1

𝒒 − 𝒙 = √𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 --- (3)

Using (3) in (2), we get
𝑥𝑦
(2) ⇒ 𝑝 − 𝑦 = (𝑞−𝑥)

(𝑝 − 𝑦)(𝑞 − 𝑥) = 𝑥𝑦
𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝𝑥 − 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦
𝒑𝒒 = 𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒𝒚 , is the required PDE.
6. Find the PDE of the family of spheres whose centre lie on the plane 𝑧 = 0 and have a
constant radius ‘r’.
Sol: The co-ordinates of the centre of the sphere can be taken as (𝑎, 𝑏, 0) where 𝑎 and 𝑏
are arbitrary. 𝑟 is the constant radius.
The equation of the sphere is given by
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 + (𝑧 − 0)2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 − (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 − (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 --- (1)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ partially
𝜕𝑧
2z 𝜕𝑥 = 0 − 2(𝑥 − 𝑎) − 0

⇒ 2z𝑝 = −2(𝑥 − 𝑎)
⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑎) = −𝑧𝑝

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 60

 𝜕𝑧
Also 2z = 0 − 0 − 2(𝑦 − 𝑏)
𝜕𝑦

⇒ 2z𝑞 = −2(𝑦 − 𝑏)
⇒ (𝑦 − 𝑏) = −𝑧𝑞
(1) ⇒ 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 − (−𝑧𝑝 )2 − (−𝑧𝑞)2
𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 − 𝑧 2 𝑝2 − 𝑧 2 𝑞 2
𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑝2 + 𝑧 2 𝑞 2 = 𝑟 2
𝒛𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝒑𝟐 + 𝒒𝟐 ) = 𝒓𝟐 , is the required PDE.

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
7. 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 = 1
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Sol: Given + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 = 1
𝑎2
𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑦2
= 1 − 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 --- (1)
𝑐2
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ partially
2𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2𝑥
2
=0− 2 −0
𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝑎
2𝑧 2𝑥
2
𝑝=− 2
𝑐 𝑎
𝑧𝑝 𝑥
= − 𝑎2 --- (2)
𝑐2

2𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2𝑦
Also, 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑦 = 0 − 0 − 𝑏2
2𝑧 2𝑦
𝑞 = − 𝑏2
𝑐2
𝑧𝑞 𝑦
= − 𝑏2 --- (3)
𝑐2

Differentiate (2) w.r.t ‘x’ partially

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑧 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑧
[𝑧. 𝜕𝑥] = − 𝑎2 𝜕𝑥 [𝑥] Since 𝑝 = 𝜕𝑥
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑥

1 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧 1
[𝜕𝑥 . 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑧. 𝜕𝑥 2 ] = − 𝑎2 . 1
𝑐2
1 1
[𝑝2 + 𝑧. 𝑟] = −
𝑐2 𝑎2

Multiply by ‘x’
𝑥 2 𝑥
[𝑝 + 𝑧𝑟] = −
𝑐2 𝑎2
𝑥 𝑧𝑝
[𝑝2 + 𝑧𝑟] = From (2)
𝑐2 𝑐2

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 𝑥[𝑝2 + 𝑧𝑟] = 𝑧𝑝
𝑥𝑝2 + 𝑥𝑧𝑟 = 𝑧𝑝
𝑥𝑝2 + 𝑥𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑝 = 0
𝑥𝑝2 + 𝑧(𝑥𝑟 − 𝑝) = 0 , is the required PDE.

8.Form the PDE of the family of spheres whose centre lies on 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with constant
radius 3.
Sol: Equation of sphere with centre on 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 i.e., C = (𝑎, 0,0) and radius 𝑟 = 3.
The equation of the sphere is given by
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 + (𝑧 − 0)2 = 32
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 9
𝑧 2 = 9 − (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 − 𝑦 2 --- (1)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ partially
𝜕𝑧
2z 𝜕𝑥 = 0 − 2(𝑥 − 𝑎) − 0

⇒ 2z𝑝 = −2(𝑥 − 𝑎)
⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑎) = −𝑧𝑝
𝜕𝑧
Also 2z 𝜕𝑦 = 0 − 0 − 2(𝑦 − 𝑏)

⇒ 2z𝑞 = −2(𝑦 − 𝑏)
⇒ (𝑦 − 𝑏) = −𝑧𝑞
(1) ⇒ 𝑧 2 = 9 − (−𝑧𝑝 )2 − (−𝑧𝑞)2
𝑧 2 = 9 − 𝑧 2 𝑝2 − 𝑧 2 𝑞 2
𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑝2 + 𝑧 2 𝑞 2 = 9
𝒛𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝒑𝟐 + 𝒒𝟐 ) = 𝟗 , is the required PDE.
Form the PDE by eliminating arbitrary functions in the following
1. 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) --- (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑥’ and ‘𝑦’ , we have
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑝 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ). 2𝑥 = 𝑞 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ). 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 62

 𝑝 𝑞
= 2𝑓 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) --- (2) = 2𝑓 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) --- (3)
𝑥 𝑦

From (2) and (3) , we have

𝑝 𝑞
=𝑦
𝑥

𝑝𝑦 = 𝑞𝑥
𝒑𝒚 − 𝒒𝒙 = 𝟎 , is the required PDE.
1
2. 𝑧 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦)
1
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦) --- (1)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑥’ and ‘𝑦’ , we have

𝜕𝑧 1 −1 𝜕𝑧 1 1
= 𝑝 = 0 + 2𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦) . ( 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑞 = 2𝑦 + 2𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦) . (𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

−1 1 1 1
𝑝= . 2𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦) 𝑞 − 2𝑦 = 𝑦 . 2𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦)
𝑥2

1 1
𝑥 2 𝑝 = −2𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦) --- (2) (𝑞 − 2𝑦)𝑦 = 2𝑓 ′ ( + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦) --- (3)
𝑥

From (2) and (3) , we have

𝑥 2 𝑝 = −(𝑞 − 2𝑦)𝑦
𝑥 2 𝑝 = −𝑞𝑦 + 2𝑦 2
𝒙𝟐 𝒑 + 𝒒𝒚 = 𝟐𝒚𝟐 , is the required PDE.
3. 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦)
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) --- (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑥’ and ‘𝑦’ , we have
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑞 = 𝑒 𝑦 . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦). 𝑒 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑦) --- (2) 𝑞 = 𝑒 𝑦 . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑦) +𝑧
𝑞 − 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑦 . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑦) --- (3)
From (2) and (3) , we have
𝑝 =𝑞−𝑧
𝒑 + 𝒛 = 𝒒 , is the required PDE.

3. 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦)

Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦) --- (1)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 63

 Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑥’, we have
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). 𝑎 + 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 . 𝑎
𝜕𝑥
𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑧
𝑝 − 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦)
Multiply by ‘b'
𝑝𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = 𝑎𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦) --- (2)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑦’, we have
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). (−𝑏) + 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 . 𝑏
𝜕𝑦
𝑞 = −𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦) + 𝑏𝑧
𝑞 − 𝑏𝑧 = −𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦)
Multiply by ‘a'
𝑞𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = −𝑎𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦) --- (3)
From (2) and (3) , we get
𝑝𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = −(𝑞𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧)
𝑝𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = −𝑞𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏𝑧
𝑝𝑏 + 𝑞𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑧 + 𝑎𝑏𝑧
𝒑𝒃 + 𝒒𝒂 = 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒛 , is the required PDE.
4. 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦)
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦) --- (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑥’, we have
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). 𝑎 + 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 . 𝑎
𝜕𝑥
𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑧
𝑝 − 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦)
Multiply by ‘b'
𝑝𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = 𝑎𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦) --- (2)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑦’, we have
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). (−𝑏) + 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦). 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 . 𝑏
𝜕𝑦
𝑞 = −𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦) + 𝑏𝑧
𝑞 − 𝑏𝑧 = −𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦)
Multiply by ‘a'
𝑞𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = −𝑎𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦) --- (3)
From (2) and (3) , we get

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 64

 𝑝𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = −(𝑞𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧)
𝑝𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = −𝑞𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏𝑧
𝑝𝑏 + 𝑞𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑧 + 𝑎𝑏𝑧
𝒑𝒃 + 𝒒𝒂 = 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒛 , is the required PDE.
5. 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝜑(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )
Sol: Given 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝜑(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) --- (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑥’, we have
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑙. 1 + 0 + 𝑛 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜑 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ). (2𝑥 + 0 + 2𝑧 𝜕𝑥)

𝑙 + 𝑛𝑝 = 2𝜑 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ). (𝑥 + 𝑧𝑝)
(𝑙+𝑛𝑝)
(𝑥+𝑧𝑝)
= 2𝜑 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) --- (2)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t ‘𝑦’, we have

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
0 + 𝑚. 1 + 𝑛 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜑 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ). (0 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 𝜕𝑦)

𝑚 + 𝑛𝑞 = 2𝜑 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ). (𝑦 + 𝑧𝑞)
(𝑚+𝑛𝑞)
(𝑦+𝑧𝑞)
= 2𝜑 ′ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) --- (3)

From (2) and (3), we get

(𝑙+𝑛𝑝) (𝑚+𝑛𝑞)
(𝑥+𝑧𝑝)
= (𝑦+𝑧𝑞)

(𝑙 + 𝑛𝑝)(𝑦 + 𝑧𝑞) = (𝑥 + 𝑧𝑝)(𝑚 + 𝑛𝑞)

𝑙𝑦 + 𝑙𝑧𝑞 + 𝑛𝑝𝑦 + 𝑛𝑝𝑧𝑞 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛𝑞𝑥 + 𝑚𝑧𝑝 + 𝑧𝑝𝑛𝑞
𝑙𝑦 − 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑛𝑞𝑥 + 𝑚𝑧𝑝 − 𝑙𝑧𝑞 − 𝑛𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑦 − 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑝(𝑚𝑧 − 𝑛𝑦) + 𝑞(𝑛𝑥 − 𝑙𝑧) , is the required PDE.
6. 𝜑(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 ) = 0
Sol: Given 𝜑(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 ) = 0
Let u = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑣 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑧2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
= 1 + 0 + 𝜕𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 0 − 2𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
=𝟏+𝒑 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐𝒛𝒑
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
= 0 + 1 + 𝜕𝑦 = 0 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
=𝟏+𝒒 = 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛𝒒
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 65

 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Now 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = |𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗
|
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0
(1 + 𝑝) (1 + 𝑞)
| |=𝟎
(2𝑥 − 2𝑧𝑝) (2𝑦 − 2𝑧𝑞)
(1 + 𝑝)(2𝑦 − 2𝑧𝑞) − (1 + 𝑞)(2𝑥 − 2𝑧𝑝) = 0
2𝑦 − 2𝑧𝑞 + 2𝑝𝑦 − 2𝑧𝑝𝑞 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑧𝑝 − 2𝑞𝑥 + 2𝑧𝑝𝑞 = 0 ÷ 𝑏𝑦 2
𝑦 − 𝑧𝑞 + 𝑝𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑧𝑝 − 𝑞𝑥 = 0
−𝑧𝑞 + 𝑝𝑦 + 𝑧𝑝 − 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑦
𝒑(𝒚 + 𝒛) − 𝒒(𝒙 + 𝒛) = 𝒙 − 𝒚 , is the required PDE.
7. 𝜑(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) = 0
Sol: Given 𝜑(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) = 0
Let u = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2 𝑣 =𝑥+𝑦+𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑦. 1 + 2𝑧 𝜕𝑥 = 1 + 0 + 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
= 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛𝒑 =𝟏+𝒑
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑥. 1 + 0 + 2𝑧 𝜕𝑦 = 1 + 0 + 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
= 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒛𝒒 =𝟏+𝒒
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Now 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = |𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗
|
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0
(𝑦 + 2𝑧𝑝) (𝑥 + 2𝑧𝑞)
| |=0
(1 + 𝑝) (1 + 𝑞)
(𝑦 + 2𝑧𝑝)(1 + 𝑞) − (𝑥 + 2𝑧𝑞)(1 + 𝑝) = 0
𝑦 + 𝑦𝑞 + 2𝑧𝑝 + 2𝑧𝑝𝑞 − 𝑥 − 2𝑧𝑞 − 𝑝𝑥 − 2𝑝𝑧𝑞 = 0
𝑦 + 𝑦𝑞 + 2𝑧𝑝 − 𝑥 − 2𝑧𝑞 − 𝑝𝑥 = 0
𝑦𝑞 + 2𝑧𝑝 − 2𝑧𝑞 − 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑦
𝒑(𝟐𝒛 − 𝒙) + 𝒒(𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛) = 𝒙 − 𝒚 , is the required PDE.
8. 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦) = 0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 66

 Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦) = 0
Let u = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑣 = 𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥 + 0 = 𝜕𝑥 − 𝑦. 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
= 𝟐𝒙 =𝒑−𝒚
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
= 0 + 2𝑦 = 𝜕𝑦 − 𝑥. 1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
= 𝟐𝒚 =𝒒−𝒙
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Now 𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) = |𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗
|
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

(2𝑥) (2𝑦)
| |=0
(𝒑 − 𝒚) (𝒒 − 𝒙)
(2𝑥)(𝑞 − 𝑥) − (2𝑦)(𝑝 − 𝑦) = 0
2𝑥𝑞 − 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑦𝑝 + 2𝑦 2 = 0 ÷ 𝑏𝑦 2
𝒙𝒒 − 𝒚𝒑 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 , is the required PDE.
9. 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑧, 𝑦 2 + 2𝑧𝑥) = 0
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑧, 𝑦 2 + 2𝑧𝑥) = 0
Let u = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑧 v = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑧𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝜕𝑥 = 0 + 2𝑥. 𝜕𝑥 + 2𝑧. 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
= 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚𝒑 = 𝟐𝒙𝒑 + 𝟐𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
= 0 + 2𝑦. 𝜕𝑦 + 2𝑧. 1 = 2𝑦 + 2𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
= 𝟐𝒚𝒒 + 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝒒
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Now 𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) = |𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗
|
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 67

 (2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑝) (2𝑦𝑞 + 2𝑧)
| |=0
(2𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑝) (2𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑞)
(2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑝)(2𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑞) − (2𝑦𝑞 + 2𝑧)(2𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑝) = 0
4𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥 2 𝑞 + 4𝑦 2 𝑝 + 4𝑥𝑦𝑝𝑞 − 4𝑧𝑦𝑞 − 4𝑥𝑦𝑝𝑞 − 4𝑧 2 − 4𝑥𝑧𝑝 = 0 ÷ 𝑏𝑦 4
𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑞 + 𝑦 2 𝑝 − 𝑧𝑦𝑞 − 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑧𝑝 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑞 + 𝑦 2 𝑝 − 𝑧𝑦𝑞 − 𝑥𝑧𝑝 = 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦
𝒑(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙𝒛) + 𝒒(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒙𝒚, is the required PDE.
𝑥𝑦
10. 𝑓 ( 𝑧 , 𝑧) = 0
𝑥𝑦
Sol: Given 𝑓 ( , 𝑧) = 0
𝑧
𝑥𝑦
Let 𝑢= 𝑣=𝑧
𝑧
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 (𝑧.1−𝑥. ) 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑥
= 𝑦. = 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝑧2 𝜕𝑥

𝝏𝒖 𝒚(𝒛−𝒙𝒑) 𝝏𝒗
= =𝒑
𝝏𝒙 𝒛𝟐 𝝏𝒙
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 (𝑧.1−𝑦. ) 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥. = 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝑧2 𝜕𝑦

𝝏𝒖 𝒙(𝒛−𝒚𝒒) 𝝏𝒗
= =𝒒
𝝏𝒚 𝒛𝟐 𝝏𝒚

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Now 𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) = |𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗
|
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0
𝑦(𝑧−𝑥𝑝) 𝑥(𝑧−𝑦𝑞)
| 𝑧2 𝑧2 |=0
𝑝 𝑞
𝑦(𝑧−𝑥𝑝) 𝑥(𝑧−𝑦𝑞)
.𝑞 − .𝑝 = 0
𝑧2 𝑧2

𝑦𝑞(𝑧−𝑥𝑝) 𝑥𝑝(𝑧−𝑦𝑞)
− =0
𝑧2 𝑧2

𝑦𝑞(𝑧−𝑥𝑝)−𝑥𝑝(𝑧−𝑦𝑞)
=0
𝑧2
𝑦𝑞𝑧−𝑥𝑝𝑝𝑞−𝑥𝑧𝑞+𝑥𝑦𝑝𝑞
=0
𝑧2

𝑦𝑞𝑧 − 𝑥𝑧𝑞 = 0 ;
z(𝑦𝑞 − 𝑥𝑞) = 0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 68

 𝒚𝒒 − 𝒙𝒑 = 𝟎, is the required PDE.
11. 𝑧 = 𝑦𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑥𝜑(𝑦)
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑦𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑥𝜑(𝑦) --- (1)
Differentiate (1) partially
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑦. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝜑(𝑦). 1
𝜕𝑥

𝒑 = 𝒚𝒇′ (𝒙) + 𝝋(𝒚) --- (2)

𝜕𝑧
= 𝑓(𝑥). 1 + 𝑥. 𝜑 ′ (𝑦)
𝜕𝑦

𝒒 = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒙𝝋′ (𝒚) --- (3)

𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑦. 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 0
𝜕𝑥 2

𝒓 = 𝒚𝒇′′ (𝒙) --- (4)

𝜕 𝜕𝑧
( ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). 1 + 𝜑 ′ (𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝜑 ′ (𝑦)
𝜕𝑦.𝜕𝑥

𝒔 = 𝒇′ (𝒙) + 𝝋′ (𝒚) --- (5)

𝜕2 𝑧
= 0 + 𝑥𝜑 ′′ (𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 2

𝒕 = 𝒙𝝋′′ (𝒚) --- (6)

(1)* 𝑥 +(2)* 𝑦
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑥𝜑(𝑦) + 𝑦𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑥𝑦𝜑 ′ (𝑦)
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 = [𝑥𝜑(𝑦) + 𝑦𝑓(𝑥)] + 𝑥𝑦[𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝜑 ′ (𝑦) ]
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 = 𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦𝑠 From (1) and (5)
𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒𝒚 − 𝒙𝒚𝒔 = 𝒛 , is the required PDE.
12. 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑦 + 2𝑥)
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑦 + 2𝑥) --- (1)
Differentiate (1) partially
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑦 + 𝑥) + 2𝑔′ (𝑦 + 2𝑥)
𝜕𝑥

𝒑 = 𝒇′ + 𝟐𝒈′ --- (2)

𝜕𝑧
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑦 + 𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑦 + 2𝑥)
𝜕𝑦

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 69

 𝒒 = 𝒇′ + 𝒈′ --- (3)
𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑓 ′′ (𝑦 + 𝑥) + 4𝑔′′ (𝑦 + 2𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 2

𝒓 = 𝒇′′ + 𝟒𝒈′′ --- (4)

𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑓 ′′ (𝑦 + 𝑥) + 4𝑔′′ (𝑦 + 2𝑥)
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝒔 = 𝒇′′ + 𝟐𝒈′′ --- (5)

𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑓 ′′ (𝑦 + 𝑥) + 𝑔′′ (𝑦 + 2𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 2

𝒕 = 𝒇′′ + 𝒈′′ --- (6)

(4) – (5)
𝑟 − 𝑠 = 𝑓 ′′ + 4𝑔′′ − 𝑓 ′′ − 2𝑔′′
𝒓 − 𝒔 = 𝟐𝒈′′ --- (7)
(5) - (6)
𝑠 − 𝑡 = 𝑓 ′′ + 2𝑔′′ − 𝑓 ′′ − 𝑔′′
𝒔 − 𝒕 = 𝒈′′ --- (8)
(7) ⇒ 𝒓 − 𝒔 = 𝟐(𝒔 − 𝒕) From (8)
𝒓 − 𝒔 = 𝟐𝒔 − 𝟐𝒕
𝒓 − 𝒔 − 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟐𝒕 = 𝟎
𝒓 − 𝟑𝒔 + 𝟐𝒕 = 𝟎 , is the required PDE.
13. 𝑧 = 𝑓1 (𝑦 − 2𝑥) + 𝑓2 (2𝑦 − 𝑥)
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑓1 (𝑦 − 2𝑥) + 𝑓2 (2𝑦 − 𝑥) --- (1)
Differentiate (1) partially
𝜕𝑧
= −2𝑓1′ (𝑦 − 2𝑥) − 𝑓2′ (2𝑦 − 𝑥)
𝜕𝑥

𝒑 = −𝟐𝒇′𝟏 − 𝒇′𝟐 --- (2)

𝜕𝑧
= 𝑓1′ (𝑦 − 2𝑥) + 2𝑓2′ (2𝑦 − 𝑥)
𝜕𝑦

𝒒 = 𝒇′𝟏 + 𝟐𝒇′𝟐 --- (3)

𝜕2 𝑧
= 4𝑓1′′ (𝑦 − 2𝑥) + 𝑓2′′ (2𝑦 − 𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 2

𝒓 = 𝟒𝒇′′ ′′
𝟏 + 𝒇𝟐 --- (4)
𝜕 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
( ) = −2𝑓1′′ (𝑦 − 2𝑥) − 2𝑓2′′ (2𝑦 − 𝑥)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 70

 𝒔 = −𝟐𝒇′′ ′′
𝟏 − 𝟐𝒇𝟐 --- (5)
𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑓1′′ (𝑦 − 2𝑥) + 4𝑓2′′ (2𝑦 − 𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 2

𝒕 = 𝒇′′ ′′
𝟏 + 𝟒𝒇𝟐 --- (6)
Now
𝑟 + 2𝑠 = 4𝑓1′′ + 𝑓2′′ −4𝑓1′′ − 4𝑓2′′
𝒓 + 𝟐𝒔 = −𝟑𝒇′′
𝟐 --- (7)
Also
𝑠 + 2𝑡 = −2𝑓1′′ − 2𝑓2′′ +2𝑓1′′ + 8𝑓2′′
𝒔 + 𝟐𝒕 = 𝟔𝒇′′
𝟐 --- (8)
(8) ÷ (7)
𝒔+𝟐𝒕 𝟔𝒇′′
= −𝟑𝒇𝟐′′
𝒓+𝟐𝒔 𝟐

𝑠+2𝑡
= −2
𝑟+2𝑠

𝑠 + 2𝑡 = −2(𝑟 + 2𝑠)
𝑠 + 2𝑡 = −2𝑟 − 4𝑠
𝑠 + 2𝑡 + 2𝑟 + 4𝑠 = 0
𝟓𝒔 + 𝟐𝒕 + 𝟐𝒓 = 𝟎 , is the required PDE.
14. 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑔(𝑥)
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑔(𝑥) --- (1)
Differentiate (1) partially
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝜕𝑥

𝒑 = 𝒇′ (𝒙) + 𝒆𝒚 𝒈′ (𝒙) --- (2)

𝜕𝑧
= 𝑒 𝑦 𝑔(𝑥)
𝜕𝑦

𝒒 = 𝒆𝒚 𝒈(𝒙) --- (3)

𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑔′′ (𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 2

𝒓 = 𝒇′′ (𝒙) + 𝒆𝒚 𝒈′′ (𝒙) --- (4)

𝜕 𝜕𝑧
( ) = 0 + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝒔 = 𝒆𝒚 𝒈′ (𝒙) --- (5)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 71

 𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑒 𝑦 𝑔(𝑥)
𝜕𝑦 2

𝒕 = 𝒆𝒚 𝒈(𝒙) --- (6)

From (3) and (6)
𝒒=𝒕
𝒕 − 𝒒 = 𝟎 , is the required the PDE.
15. 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)
Sol: Given 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡) --- (1)
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) + 𝑔′ (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)
𝜕𝑥

𝒑 = 𝒇′ + 𝒈′ --- (2)
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑐𝑓 ′ (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) − 𝑐𝑔′ (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)
𝜕𝑡

𝒒 = 𝒄𝒇′ − 𝒄𝒈′ --- (3)

𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) + 𝑔′′ (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 2

𝒓 = 𝒇′′ + 𝒈′′ --- (4)

𝜕 𝜕𝑧
( ) = 𝑐𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) − 𝑐𝑔′′ (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝒔 = 𝒄𝒇′′ − 𝒄𝒈′′ --- (5)

𝜕2 𝑧
= 𝑐 2 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) + 𝑐 2 𝑔′′ (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2

𝒕 = 𝒄𝟐 𝒇′′ + 𝒄𝟐 𝒈′′ --- (6)

Consider
𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑓 ′′ + 𝑐 2 𝑔′′
𝑡 = 𝑐 2 [𝑓 ′′ + 𝑔′′ ]
𝑡 = 𝑐2𝑟
𝒕 − 𝒄𝟐 𝒓 = 𝟎 , is the required PDE.
Solution of Non Homogeneous PDE by Direct Integration
𝜕2 𝑢
1. Solve 𝜕𝑥 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦

𝜕2 𝑢
Sol: Given =𝑥+𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕 𝜕𝑢
( )=𝑥+𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 72

 Integrate w.r.t ′𝑥′
𝜕𝑢
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝑥2
= + 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 2

Again integrating w.r.t ′𝑥′

1
𝑢 = 2 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑥3 𝑥2
𝑢 = 2 [ 3 ] + 𝑦 [ 2 ] + 𝑓(𝑦). 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑦)

𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟐 𝒚
𝒖= + + 𝒙𝒇(𝒚) + 𝒈(𝒚) , is the required solution.
𝟔 𝟐

𝜕2 𝑧 𝑥
2. Solve =𝑦+𝑎
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑧 𝑥
Sol: Given =𝑦+𝑎
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝑧 𝑥
( )=𝑦+𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑥′

𝜕𝑧 1
= 𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑧 𝑥2
= 2𝑦 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝜕𝑦

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑦′

𝑥2 1
𝑧= ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑎𝑥 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
2

𝒙𝟐
𝒛= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚 + 𝒂𝒙𝒚 + 𝑭(𝒚) + 𝒈(𝒙) , is the required solution.
𝟐

𝜕3 𝑧
3. Solve = cos(2𝑥 + 3𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦

𝜕3 𝑧
Sol: Given = cos(2𝑥 + 3𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕2 𝑧
( ) = cos(2𝑥 + 3𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑥′

𝜕2 𝑧
= ∫ cos(2𝑥 + 3𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑧 sin(2𝑥+3𝑦)
= + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 73

 𝜕 𝜕𝑧 sin(2𝑥+3𝑦)
( )= + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2

Integrating w.r.t ′𝑥′

𝜕𝑧 1
= 2 ∫ sin(2𝑥 + 3𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑧 −cos(2𝑥+3𝑦)
= + 𝑓(𝑦). 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 2.2

Integrating w.r.t ′𝑦′

1
𝑧 = − 4 ∫ cos(2𝑥 + 3𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
1 sin(2𝑥+3𝑦)
𝑧 = −4. + 𝑥𝐹(𝑦) + 𝐺(𝑦) + ℎ(𝑥)
3

𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝒙+𝟑𝒚)
𝒛=− + 𝒙𝑭(𝒚) + 𝑮(𝒚) + 𝒉(𝒙), is the required solution.
𝟏𝟐

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
4. Solve = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 for which 𝜕𝑦 = −2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 when 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑧 = 0 if 𝑦 is an odd
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
multiple of 2 .{𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 }

𝜕2 𝑧
Sol: Given = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝑧
( ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑥′

𝜕𝑧
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑧
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦) --- (1)
𝜕𝑦

Integrate w.r.t ′y′

𝑧 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑧 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦) + 𝐹(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝐹(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑥) --- (2)
𝜕𝑧
By data = −2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 when 𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑦

(1) ⇒ −2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦(−𝑐𝑜𝑠0) + 𝑓(𝑦) Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1

−2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑓(𝑦) = −2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝒇(𝒚) = −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚
Now

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 74

 𝐹(𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝐹(𝑦) = − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐹(𝑦) = −(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦)
𝐹(𝑦) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
(2) ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝜋
Again by data 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(2𝑛 + 1) 2 ] + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(2𝑛 + 1) 2 ] + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(2𝑛 + 1) 2 ] = 0

𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎
Thus,
(2) ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 0
𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒚(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝟏) , is the solution.
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕𝑢
5. Solve = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 given that 𝑢 = 0 when 𝑡 = 0 and = 0 at 𝑥 = 0 . Also show that
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑢 → 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 as t → ∞.
𝜕2 𝑢
Sol: Given = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝜕𝑢
( 𝜕𝑡 ) = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝜕𝑥

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑥′

𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 −𝑡 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑡) --- (1)
𝜕𝑡

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑡′

𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑒 −𝑡
𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 [ −1 ] + 𝐹(𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑢 = −𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐹(𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑥) --- (2)

𝜕𝑢
By data = 0 at 𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑡

(1) ⇒ 0 = 𝑒 −𝑡 (𝑠𝑖𝑛0) + 𝑓(𝑡) Since 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0

𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟎
Now

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 75

 𝐹(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑭(𝒕) = 𝟎
(2) ⇒ 𝑢 = −𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 0 + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑢 = −𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)
Also given 𝑢 = 0 when 𝑡 = 0
0 = −𝑒 −0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥) Since 𝑒 −0 = 1
0 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
Thus,
(2) ⇒ 𝑢 = −𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 0 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝒖 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝟏−𝒆−𝒕 ) , is the solution.
As 𝑡 → ∞
𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1−𝑒 −∞ )
𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1 − 0)
𝒖 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
∴ 𝒖 → 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 as 𝒕 → ∞
𝜕2 𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑧
6. Solve = 𝑦 subject to 𝑧 = 0 when 𝑥 = 1 and = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 when 𝑦 = 1.
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑧 𝑥
Sol: Given =𝑦
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑧 𝑥
=𝑦
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝜕𝑧 𝑥
( )=𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑦′

𝜕𝑧 1
= 𝑥 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑧
= 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥) --- (1)
𝜕𝑥

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑥′

𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 [ 2 ] + 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑦) --- (2)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 76

 𝜕𝑧
By data = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 when 𝑦 = 1
𝜕𝑥

(1) ⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔1 + 𝑓(𝑥) Since 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 = 0

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙
Now
𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥. 1 𝑑𝑥
1
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 . 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑭(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 − 𝒙
𝑥 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
(2) ⇒ 𝑧 = + 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑦)
2

Also given 𝑧 = 0 when 𝑥 = 1

1.𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
0= + 1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 − 1 + 𝑔(𝑦) Since 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 = 0
2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
0= − 1 + 𝑔(𝑦)
2
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚
𝒈(𝒚) = 𝟏 − 𝟐

Thus,
𝑥 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
𝑧= + 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1 −
2 2
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚
𝒛= (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏) + 𝒙(𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 − 𝟏) + 𝟏 , is the required solution.
𝟐

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
7. Solve = 𝑥𝑦 subject to the conditions that 𝜕𝑥 = log(1 + 𝑦) when 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2
when 𝑥 = 0.
𝜕2 𝑧
Sol: Given = 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕 𝜕𝑧
( ) = 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑥′

𝜕𝑧
= 𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑧 𝑥2
= 𝑦. + 𝑓(𝑦) --- (1)
𝜕𝑥 2

Integrate w.r.t ′𝑥′

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 77

 𝑦
𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
2

𝑦 𝑥3
𝑧 = 2 [ 3 ] + 𝑥𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦)

𝑥3𝑦
𝑧= + 𝑥𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦) --- (2)
6
𝜕𝑧
By data 𝜕𝑥 = log(1 + 𝑦) when 𝑥 = 1
𝑦
(1) ⇒ log(1 + 𝑦) = 2 + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝒚
𝒇(𝒚) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝟏 + 𝒚) − 𝟐

𝑥3𝑦 𝑦
(2) ⇒ 𝑧 = + 𝑥 [𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑦) − 2] + 𝑔(𝑦)
6

Also by data 𝑧 = 0 when 𝑥 = 0

0 = 0 + 0 + 𝑔(𝑦)
𝒈(𝒚) = 𝟎
Thus,
𝑥3𝑦 𝑦
𝑧= + 𝑥 [𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑦) − 2] + 0
6

𝒙𝟑 𝒚 𝒚
𝒛= + 𝒙 [𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝟏 + 𝒚) − 𝟐] , is the required solution.
𝟔

Solution of Homogeneous PDE involving derivatives with respect to one independent

variable only
𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
1. Solve + 𝑧 = 0 given that when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑦 and = 1.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑧
Sol: Given +𝑧=0
𝜕𝑥 2

(𝐷2 + 1)𝑧 = 0
A.E : 𝑚2 + 1 = 0
𝑚2 = −1

𝑚 = ±√−1
𝒎 = ±𝒊
𝑧𝑐 = 𝑒 0.𝑥 [𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥]
The G.S is
z = 𝑧𝑐

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 78

 𝒛 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
The solution for PDE is
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 --- (1)
By data, When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑦
(1) ⇒ 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑦)cos(0) + 𝑔(𝑦)sin(0) [ sin(0) = 0, cos(0) = 1 ]
𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑦)
𝒇(𝒚) = 𝒆𝒚
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘𝑥’
𝝏𝒛
= −𝒇(𝒚)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 --- (2)
𝝏𝒙
𝜕𝑧
when 𝜕𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 0

(2) ⇒ 1 = −𝑓(𝑦)sin(0) + 𝑔(𝑦)cos(0) [ sin(0) = 0, cos(0) = 1 ]

1 = 𝑔(𝑦)
𝒈(𝒚) = 𝟏
∴ (1) ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑦 cos 𝑥 + 1. sin 𝑥
𝒛 = 𝒆𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 , is the solution.
𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
2. Solve = 𝑎2 𝑧 given that when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 0 and = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑧
Sol: Given − 𝑎2 𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2

(𝐷2 − 𝑎2 )𝑧 = 0
A.E : 𝑚2 − 𝑎2 = 0
𝑚2 = 𝑎2

𝑚 = ±√𝑎2
𝒎 = ±𝒂
𝑧𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
The G.S is
z = 𝑧𝑐
𝒛 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒂𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒂𝒙
The solution for PDE is
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚)𝒆𝒂𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)𝒆−𝒂𝒙 --- (1)
By data, When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 0
(1) ⇒ 0 = 𝑓(𝑦)𝑒 0 + 𝑔(𝑦)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1]

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 79

 0 = 𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦)
𝒇(𝒚) + 𝒈(𝒚) = 𝟎 --- (2)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘𝑥’
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒂𝒇(𝒚)𝒆𝒂𝒙 − 𝒂𝒈(𝒚)𝒆−𝒂𝒙 --- (3)
𝝏𝒙
𝜕𝑧
when 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 and 𝑥 = 0

(3) ⇒ 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑎𝑓(𝑦)𝑒 0 − 𝑎𝑔(𝑦)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1 ]

𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑎. 𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑎. 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝒇(𝒚) − 𝒈(𝒚) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚 --- (4)
(4) + (2) , we get (4) - (2) , we get
𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦) = 0 𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦) = 0
2𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 −2𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚
𝒇(𝒚) = 𝒈(𝒚) = −
𝟐 𝟐

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚
∴ (1) ⇒ 𝑧 = ( ) 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + (− ) 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝟐 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚
𝒛= [𝒆𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒂𝒙 ] , is the solution.
𝟐

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
3. Solve = 𝑧 given that when 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 and = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑧
Sol: Given −𝑧 =0
𝜕𝑦 2

(𝐷2 − 1)𝑧 = 0
A.E : 𝑚2 − 1 = 0
𝑚2 = 1

𝑚 = ±√1
𝒎 = ±𝟏
𝑧𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑦
The G.S is
z = 𝑧𝑐
𝒛 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒚 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒚

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 80

 The solution for PDE is

𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝒚 + 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆−𝒚 --- (1)

By data, When 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥
(1) ⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 0 + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1]
𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 --- (2)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘𝑦’
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝒚 − 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆−𝒚 --- (3)
𝝏𝒚

𝜕𝑧
When 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 and 𝑦 = 0

(3) ⇒ 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 0 − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1 ]

𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒆−𝒙 --- (4)
(2) + (4) , we get (2) - (4) , we get

𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥

2𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 2𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝒆𝒙 +𝒆−𝒙 𝒆𝒙 −𝒆−𝒙
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) =
2 2

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒙 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒙

∴ (1) ⇒ 𝑧 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥)𝑒 𝑦 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 )𝑒 −𝑦
𝒛 = 𝒆𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒙, is the solution.
𝜕2 𝑢 1⁄
4. Solve + 𝑢 = 0 where 𝑢 satisfy the conditions i) 𝑢(0, 𝑦) = 𝑒 2
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕𝑢
ii) (0, 𝑦) = 1.
𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑢
Sol: Given +𝑢 =0
𝜕𝑥 2

(𝐷2 + 1)𝑢 = 0
A.E : 𝑚2 + 1 = 0
𝑚2 = −1

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 81

 𝑚 = ±√−1
𝒎 = ±𝒊
𝑢𝑐 = 𝑒 0.𝑥 [𝑐1𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥]
The G.S is
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑐
𝒖 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
The solution for PDE is
𝒖 = 𝒇(𝒚)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 --- (1)
1⁄
By data, When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 𝑒 2
1⁄
(1) ⇒ 𝑒 2 = 𝑓(𝑦)cos(0) + 𝑔(𝑦)sin(0) [ sin(0) = 0, cos(0) = 1 ]
1⁄
𝑒 2 = 𝑓(𝑦)

𝒇(𝒚) = √𝒆
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘𝑥’
𝝏𝒖
= −𝒇(𝒚)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 --- (2)
𝝏𝒙

𝜕𝑢
When = 1 and 𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥

(2) ⇒ 1 = −𝑓(𝑦)sin(0) + 𝑔(𝑦)cos(0) [ sin(0) = 0, cos(0) = 1 ]

1 = 𝑔(𝑦)
𝒈(𝒚) = 𝟏

∴ (1) ⇒ 𝑧 = √𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

𝒛 = √𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 , is the solution.
𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
5. Solve = 𝑎2 𝑧 given that when 𝑥 = 0, 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 and = 0.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑧
Sol: Given − 𝑎2 𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2

(𝐷2 − 𝑎2 )𝑧 = 0
A.E : 𝑚2 − 𝑎2 = 0
𝑚2 = 𝑎2

𝑚 = ±√𝑎2
𝒎 = ±𝒂
𝑧𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
The G.S is
z = 𝑧𝑐

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 82

 𝒛 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒂𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒂𝒙
The solution for PDE is
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚)𝒆𝒂𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)𝒆−𝒂𝒙 --- (1)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘𝑥’ partially
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒂𝒇(𝒚)𝒆𝒂𝒙 − 𝒂𝒈(𝒚)𝒆−𝒂𝒙
𝝏𝒙
𝜕𝑧
When 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 and 𝑥 = 0

𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑎𝑓(𝑦)𝑒 0 − 𝑎𝑔(𝑦)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1 ]

𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑎. 𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑎. 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝒇(𝒚) − 𝒈(𝒚) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚 --- (2)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘𝑦’ partially
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒇′ (𝒚)𝒆𝒂𝒙 + 𝒈′ (𝒚)𝒆−𝒂𝒙
𝝏𝒚

𝜕𝑧
When 𝜕𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 0

0 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑦)𝑒 0 + 𝑔′ (𝑦)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1 ]
𝑓 ′ (𝑦) + 𝑔′ (𝑦) = 0
Integrate w.r.t ‘𝑦’
𝒇(𝒚) + 𝒈(𝒚) = 𝒌 --- (3)
(3) + (2) , we get (3) - (2) , we get

𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦

𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑘 𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑘
2𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 𝑘 −2𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑘
𝑘+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑘−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑔(𝑦) =
2 2

𝑘+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑘−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
∴ (1) ⇒ 𝑧 = ( ) 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + ( ) 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
2 2

𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦+𝑘𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦

𝑧= 2

𝑘[𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 ]+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦[𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 ]

𝑧= 2

𝑘[2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑥]+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦[2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥]
𝑧= 2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 83

 𝒛 = 𝒌𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒂𝒙 , is the solution.
𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
6. Solve = 𝑧 given that 𝑧 = 0 and = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 when 𝑦 = 0.
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑧
Sol: Given −𝑧 =0
𝜕𝑦 2

(𝐷2 − 1)𝑧 = 0
A.E : 𝑚2 − 1 = 0
𝑚2 = 1
𝑚 = ±√1
𝒎 = ±𝟏
𝑧𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑦
The G.S is
z = 𝑧𝑐
𝒛 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒚 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒚
The solution for PDE is
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝒚 + 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆−𝒚 --- (1)

By data, When 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0
(1) ⇒ 0 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 0 + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1]
0 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎 --- (2)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘𝑦’
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒇(𝒙)𝒆𝒚 − 𝒈(𝒙)𝒆−𝒚 --- (3)
𝝏𝒚

𝜕𝑧
When 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑦 = 0

(3) ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 0 − 𝑔(𝑥)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1 ]

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 --- (4)
(2) + (4) , we get (2) - (4) , we get

𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 0

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

2𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 84

 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = −
2 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
∴ (1) ⇒ 𝑧 = ( ) 𝑒 𝑦 + (− ) 𝑒 −𝑦
2 2

𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 [ ]
2

𝒛 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒚, is the solution.

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
7. Solve + 3 𝜕𝑥 − 4𝑧 = 0 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑧 = 1 &
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑧
= 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 0.
𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Sol: Given +3 − 4𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥

(𝐷2 + 3𝐷 − 4)𝑧 = 0
A.E : 𝑚2 + 3𝑚 − 4 = 0
𝑚2 + 4𝑚 − 𝑚 − 4 = 0
𝑚(𝑚 + 4) − 1(𝑚 + 4) = 0
(𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 + 4) = 0
𝑚 = 1, −4
𝒛𝒄 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝟒𝒙
The G.S is
z = 𝑧𝑐
𝒛 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝟒𝒙
The solution for PDE is
𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒚)𝒆𝒙 + 𝒈(𝒚)𝒆−𝟒𝒙 --- (1)
By data, When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 1
(1) ⇒ 1 = 𝑓(𝑦)𝑒 0 + 𝑔(𝑦)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1]
1 = 𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦)
𝒇(𝒚) + 𝒈(𝒚) = 𝟏 --- (2)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘𝑥’
𝝏𝒛
= 𝒇(𝒚)𝒆𝒙 − 𝟒𝒈(𝒚)𝒆−𝟒𝒙 --- (3)
𝝏𝒙

𝜕𝑧
When 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑦 and 𝑥 = 0
(3) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑦)𝑒 0 − 4𝑔(𝑦)𝑒 −0 [𝑒 0 = 1 ]
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑦) − 4𝑔(𝑦)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 85

 𝒇(𝒚) − 𝟒𝒈(𝒚) = 𝒚 --- (4)

4*(2) + (4) , we get (2) - (4) , we get

4𝑓(𝑦) + 4𝑔(𝑦) = 4 𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦) = 1

𝑓(𝑦) − 4𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑦 𝑓(𝑦) − 4𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑦

5𝑓(𝑦) = 4 + 𝑦 5𝑔(𝑦) = 1 − 𝑦
𝟒+𝒚 𝟏−𝒚
𝒇(𝒚) = 𝒈(𝒚) =
𝟓 𝟓

𝟒+𝒚 𝟏−𝒚
∴ (1) ⇒ 𝒛 = ( ) 𝒆𝒙 + ( ) 𝒆−𝟒𝒙 , is the solution.
𝟓 𝟓

𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
8. Solve = 𝜕𝑥 , using the substitution 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑣.
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕𝑢
Sol: Given = 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
[ ] = 𝜕𝑥 --- (1)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢
Let =𝑣
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
(1) ⇒ =𝑣
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑣
−𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑦

(𝐷 − 1)𝑣 = 0
A.E: 𝑚 − 1 = 0
𝑚=1
The solution is 𝑣 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑦
𝜕𝑢
Now, = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 𝑦
𝜕𝑥

Integrate w.r.t ‘𝑥’

𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑦 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝒖 = 𝒆𝒚 𝑭(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒚) , is the solution.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 86

 Solution of the Lagrange’s linear PDE
Lagrange’s linear PDE is of the form 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 . Let us consider two equations:
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐1 , 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐2 where 𝑐1and 𝑐2 are constants.
By the rule of cross multiplication, we have
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
Above equation is regarded as a system of simultaneous equations in three variables and
relations 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐1 , 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐2 satisfy these equations.
Thus 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0 is a general solution of Lagrange’s linear PDE.
Problems
1. Solve 𝑦𝑧𝑝 + 𝑥𝑧𝑞 = 𝑥𝑦
Sol: Given (𝑦𝑧)𝑝 + (𝑥𝑧)𝑞 = 𝑥𝑦
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = 𝑦𝑧 Q = 𝑥𝑧 R = 𝑥𝑦
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = 𝑥𝑦
𝑦𝑧 𝑥𝑧

Comparing,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = 𝑥𝑦
𝑦𝑧 𝑥𝑧 𝑥𝑧

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑦 𝑥 𝑧 𝑦

Integrating Integrating

∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑧2
= + 𝑐1 = + 𝑐2
2 2 2 2

𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑐1 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 + 2𝑐2
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑘1 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = 𝑘2
Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝝋 ((𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 ), (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐 )) = 𝟎.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 87

 2. Solve 𝑥𝑧𝑝 + 𝑦𝑧𝑞 = 𝑥𝑦
Sol: Given (𝑥𝑧)𝑝 + (𝑦𝑧)𝑞 = 𝑥𝑦
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = 𝑥𝑧 Q = 𝑦𝑧 R = 𝑥𝑦
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = 𝑥𝑦
𝑥𝑧 𝑦𝑧

Comparing,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑥𝑧 𝑦𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑥 𝑦

Integrating
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
∫ =∫
𝑥 𝑦

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + log(𝑐1 )

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐1 𝑦)
𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑦
𝒙
𝒄𝟏 = 𝒚

Let the multipliers be y, 𝑥, − 2𝑧

𝑦 𝑑𝑥+𝑥 𝑑𝑦−2𝑧 𝑑𝑧
∴ Each fraction = 𝑥𝑦𝑧+𝑥𝑦𝑧−2𝑥𝑦𝑧

𝑦 𝑑𝑥+𝑥 𝑑𝑦−2𝑧 𝑑𝑧
k= 0

y 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑑(𝑥𝑦) − 2𝑧𝑑𝑧 = 0
Integrating

𝒙𝒚 − 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐
Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝒙
𝝋 ((𝒚) , (𝒙𝒚 − 𝒛𝟐 )) = 𝟎.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 88

 3. Solve 𝑦 2 𝑝 − 𝑥𝑦𝑞 = 𝑥(𝑧 − 2𝑦)
Sol: Given (𝑦 2 )𝑝 + (−𝑥𝑦)𝑞 = 𝑥(𝑧 − 2𝑦)
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = 𝑦2 Q = −𝑥𝑦 R = 𝑥(𝑧 − 2𝑦)
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= −𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑧−2𝑦)
𝑦2

Comparing,
𝑑𝑥 −𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = 𝑥(𝑧−2𝑦)
𝑦2 𝑥𝑦 −𝑥𝑦

𝑑𝑥 −𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = (𝑧−2𝑦)
𝑦 𝑥 −𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − = (𝑧−2𝑦)
𝑦

Integrating (𝑧 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = −𝑦𝑑𝑧

∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 (𝑧 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2
=− + 𝑐1 𝑧𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 0
2 2

𝑥 2 = −𝑦 2 + 2𝑐1 𝑧𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒌𝟏 𝑑(𝑦𝑧) − 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
Integrating
𝒚𝒛 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐
Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝝋 ((𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ), (𝒚𝒛 − 𝒚𝟐 )) = 𝟎.

4. Solve 𝑥 𝑝 + 𝑦𝑞 = 3𝑧
Sol: Given (𝑥)𝑝 + (𝑦)𝑞 = 3𝑧
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃=𝑥 Q=𝑦 R = 3𝑧
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 89

 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑥 𝑦 3𝑧

Comparing,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = 3𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 𝑦

Integrating Integrating
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
∫ =∫ 3∫ =∫
𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑧

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + log(𝑐1 ) 3𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 + log(𝑐2 )

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐1 𝑦) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 3 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐2 𝑧)
𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑦 𝑦 3 = 𝑐2 𝑧
𝒙 𝒚𝟑
𝒄𝟏 = 𝒚 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒛

Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝒙 𝒚𝟑
𝝋 ((𝒚) , ( 𝒛 )) = 𝟎.

𝑦2𝑧
5. Solve 𝑝 + 𝑥𝑧𝑞 = 𝑦 2
𝑥

𝑦2𝑧
Sol: Given ( ) 𝑝 + (𝑥𝑧)𝑞 = 𝑦 2
𝑥

Multiply by ′𝑥′
(𝑦 2 𝑧)𝑝 + (𝑥 2 𝑧)𝑞 = 𝑥𝑦 2
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = 𝑦2𝑧 Q = 𝑥2𝑧 R = 𝑥𝑦 2

Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑥 2 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 2
𝑦2𝑧

Comparing,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑥2𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 2
𝑦2𝑧 𝑦2𝑧

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑧 𝑥

Integrating Integrating

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 90

 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑥2 𝑧2
= + 𝑐1 = + 𝑐2
3 3 2 2

𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 + 3𝑐1 𝑥 2 = 𝑧 2 + 2𝑐2
𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = 𝑘1 𝑥 2 − 𝑧 2 = 𝑘2
Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝝋 ((𝒙𝟑 − 𝒚𝟑 ), (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐 )) = 𝟎.
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
6. Solve (𝑚𝑧 − 𝑛𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 + (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑙𝑧) 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑙𝑦 − 𝑚𝑥

Sol: Given (𝑚𝑧 − 𝑛𝑦)𝑝 + (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑙𝑧)𝑞 = 𝑙𝑦 − 𝑚𝑥

⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑧 − 𝑛𝑦 Q = 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑙𝑧 R = 𝑙𝑦 − 𝑚𝑥
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
(𝑚𝑧−𝑛𝑦)
= (𝑛𝑥−𝑙𝑧) = (𝑙𝑦−𝑚𝑥)

Let the multipliers be 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧
∴ Each fraction = 𝑥(𝑚𝑧−𝑛𝑦)+𝑦(𝑛𝑥−𝑙𝑧)+𝑧(𝑙𝑦−𝑚𝑥)

𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧
k = 𝑥𝑚𝑧−𝑥𝑛𝑦+𝑦𝑛𝑥−𝑦𝑙𝑧+𝑧𝑙𝑦−𝑧𝑚𝑥

𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧
k= 0

𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Integrate

∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
+ + = 𝑐1
2 2 2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 2𝑐1
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒌𝟏
Let the multipliers be 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛
𝑙 𝑑𝑥+𝑚 𝑑𝑦+𝑛 𝑑𝑧
∴ Each fraction = 𝑙(𝑚𝑧−𝑛𝑦)+𝑚(𝑛𝑥−𝑙𝑧)+𝑛(𝑙𝑦−𝑚𝑥)

𝑙 𝑑𝑥+𝑚 𝑑𝑦+𝑛 𝑑𝑧
k = 𝑙𝑚𝑧−𝑙𝑛𝑦+𝑚𝑛𝑥−𝑚𝑙𝑧+𝑛𝑙𝑦−𝑛𝑚𝑥

𝑙 𝑑𝑥+𝑚 𝑑𝑦+𝑛 𝑑𝑧
k= 0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 91

 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑚 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Integrate

∫ 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑚 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑐2
Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝝋 ((𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ), (𝒍𝒙 + 𝒎𝒚 + 𝒏𝒛)) = 𝟎 OR

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒇(𝒍𝒙 + 𝒎𝒚 + 𝒏𝒛)
7. Solve 𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑝 + 𝑦 2 (𝑧 − 𝑥)𝑞 = 𝑧 2 (𝑥 − 𝑦)
Sol: Given 𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 𝑧 )𝑝 + 𝑦 2 (𝑧 − 𝑥 )𝑞 = 𝑧 2 (𝑥 − 𝑦 )
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = 𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 𝑧) Q = 𝑦 2 (𝑧 − 𝑥) R = 𝑧 2 (𝑥 − 𝑦)
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑦 2 (𝑧−𝑥) = 𝑧 2 (𝑥−𝑦)
𝑥 2 (𝑦−𝑧)

1 1 1
Let the multipliers be 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2
1 1 1
𝑑𝑥+ 2 𝑑𝑦+ 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑥2 𝑦 𝑧
∴ Each fraction = 𝑦−𝑧+𝑧−𝑥+𝑥−𝑦
1 1 1
𝑑𝑥+ 2 𝑑𝑦+ 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑥2 𝑦 𝑧
k= 0
1 1 1
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑥2

Integrating
1 1 1
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
1 1 1
− 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 𝑐1
1 1 1
+ 𝑦 + 𝑧 = −𝑐1
𝑥

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ 𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝒌𝟏
𝒙

1 1 1
Let the multipliers be , ,
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 92

 1 1 1
𝑑𝑥+ 𝑑𝑦+ 𝑑𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Each fraction = 𝑥𝑦−𝑥𝑧+𝑦𝑧−𝑦𝑥+𝑧𝑥−𝑧𝑦
1 1 1
𝑑𝑥+ 𝑑𝑦+ 𝑑𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
k= 0
1 1 1
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑥

Integrating
1 1 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐2

log(𝑥𝑦𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐2
𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 𝒄𝟐
Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝋 ((𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 ) , (𝒙𝒚𝒛)) = 𝟎 OR + 𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙𝒚𝒛)
𝒙

8. Solve (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 )𝑝 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑞 = 2𝑥𝑧

Sol: Given (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 )𝑝 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑞 = 2𝑥𝑧
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 ) Q = 2𝑥𝑦 R = 2𝑥𝑧
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
(𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 −𝑧 2 )
= 2𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑧

Comparing
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= 2𝑥𝑧
2𝑥𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
=
𝑦 𝑧

Integrating
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
∫ =∫
𝑦 𝑧

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐1 )

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑧𝑐1 )
𝑦 = 𝑧𝑐1

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 93

 𝒚
= 𝒄𝟏
𝒛

Let the multipliers be 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧
∴ Each fraction = 𝑥(𝑥 2 −𝑦2 −𝑧 2 )+𝑦(2𝑥𝑦)+𝑧(2𝑥𝑧)

𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧
k = 𝑥(𝑥 2 −𝑦 2−𝑧 2 +2𝑦 2 +2𝑧 2 )

𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧
k= 𝑥(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )

Comparing
𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥𝑦
𝑥(𝑥 2 +𝑦2 +𝑧 2 )

𝑥 𝑑𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
= 2𝑦

2𝑥 𝑑𝑥+2𝑦 𝑑𝑦+2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
= 𝑦

Integrating
2𝑥 𝑑𝑥+2𝑦 𝑑𝑦+2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
∫ (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
=∫ 𝑦

𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐2 )

𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑦𝑐2 )
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) = 𝑦𝑐2
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 )
= 𝒄𝟐
𝒚

Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝒚 (𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ) 𝒚 (𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 )
𝝋 ((𝒛 ) , ( )) = 𝟎 OR = 𝒇( )
𝒚 𝒛 𝒚

9. Solve (𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )𝑝 + 𝑥(𝑦𝑞 − 𝑧) = 0
Sol: Given (𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )𝑝 + 𝑥𝑦𝑞 = 𝑥𝑧
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = (𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) Q = 𝑥𝑦 R = 𝑥𝑧
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
(𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
= 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥𝑧

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 94

 Comparing
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑥𝑧
𝑥𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
=
𝑦 𝑧

Integrating
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
∫ =∫
𝑦 𝑧

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐1 )

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑧𝑐1 )
𝑦 = 𝑧𝑐1
𝒚
= 𝒄𝟏
𝒛

Let the multipliers be 𝑥, −𝑦, −𝑧

𝑥 𝑑𝑥−𝑦 𝑑𝑦−𝑧 𝑑𝑧
∴ Each fraction = 𝑥(𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )−𝑦(𝑥𝑦)−𝑧(𝑥𝑧)

𝑥 𝑑𝑥−𝑦 𝑑𝑦−𝑧 𝑑𝑧
k = 𝑥(𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 −𝑦 2−𝑧 2 )

𝑥 𝑑𝑥−𝑦 𝑑𝑦−𝑧 𝑑𝑧
k= 0

𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Integrating

∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
− − = 𝑐2
2 2 2

𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = 2𝑐2
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒌𝟐
Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0
𝒚 𝒚
𝝋 ((𝒛 ) , (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐 )) = 𝟎 OR = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒛𝟐 )
𝒛

10. Solve 𝑥(𝑦 2 + 𝑧)𝑝 − 𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑧)𝑞 = 𝑧(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )

Sol: Given 𝑥(𝑦 2 + 𝑧)𝑝 − 𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑧)𝑞 = 𝑧(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = 𝑥(𝑦 2 + 𝑧) Q = −𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑧) R = 𝑧(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
Auxilary equations

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 95

 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= −𝑦(𝑥 2 +𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 )
𝑥(𝑦 2 +𝑧)

1 1 1
Let the multipliers be , ,
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
1 1 1
𝑑𝑥+ 𝑑𝑦+ 𝑑𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Each fraction = 𝑦 2 +𝑧−𝑥 2 −𝑧+𝑥 2 −𝑦2
1 1 1
𝑑𝑥+ 𝑑𝑦+ 𝑑𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
k= 0
1 1 1
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑥

Integrating
1 1 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐2

log(𝑥𝑦𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐1
𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 𝒄𝟏
Let the multipliers be 𝑥, 𝑦, −1
𝑥𝑑𝑥+𝑦𝑑𝑦−𝑑𝑧
Each fraction = 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 +𝑥2 𝑧−𝑥 2 𝑦 2 −𝑦 2 𝑧−𝑥 2 𝑧+𝑦 2 𝑧

𝑥𝑑𝑥+𝑦𝑑𝑦−𝑑𝑧
k=
0

𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Integrate

∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ − 𝑧 = 𝑐2
2 2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑧 = 2𝑐2
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒛 = 𝒌𝟐
Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0
𝝋 ((𝒙𝒚𝒛), (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒛)) = 𝟎 OR 𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒛)

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
11. Solve 𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 − 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑧

Sol: Given 𝑥 2 𝑝 − 𝑦 2 𝑞 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑧

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 96

 ⟨𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 ⟩
Here 𝑃 = 𝑥2 Q = −𝑦 2 R = (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑧
Auxilary equations
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= −𝑦 2 = (𝑥−𝑦)𝑧
𝑥2

Comparing
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= −𝑦 2
𝑥2

Integrating
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
∫ 𝑥2 = − ∫ 𝑦2
1 1
− = + 𝑐1
𝑥 𝑦

1 1
+ 𝑦 = −𝑐1
𝑥

𝟏 𝟏
+ 𝒚 = 𝒌𝟏
𝒙

Also , we can write

𝑑𝑥+𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= (𝑥−𝑦)𝑧
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2

𝑑𝑥+𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
(𝑥+𝑦)(𝑥−𝑦)
= (𝑥−𝑦)𝑧

𝑑𝑥+𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
(𝑥+𝑦)
= 𝑧

Integrating we get
log(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐2 )
log(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑧𝑐2 )
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑧𝑐2
(𝒙+𝒚)
= 𝒄𝟐
𝒛

Thus the solution is, 𝜑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

𝟏 𝟏 𝒙+𝒚 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙+𝒚
𝝋 ((𝒙 + 𝒚) , ( )) = 𝟎 OR + 𝒚 = 𝒇( )
𝒛 𝒙 𝒛

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 97

 Derivation of One dimensional Wave Equation [𝒖𝒕𝒕 = 𝒄𝟐 𝒖𝒙𝒙 ]
Consider a flexible string tightly stretched between two fixed points at a distance ‘l’ apart.
Let ′𝜌′ be the mass per unit length. We assume
1. The tension T of the string is same throughout.
2. The effect of gravity can be ignored due to large tension ‘T’.
3. The motion of string is in small transverse vibration.

Let us consider the forces acting on a small element PQ of length 𝛿𝑥.

Let 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 be the tensions at the points P and Q.
∴ 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝑇 [ Since there is no motion in horizontal direction]
𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑇 , 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑇 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝑇
1 2

1 𝑇1 1 𝑇
= , = 𝑇2--- (1)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

Vertical component of tension are −𝑇1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 and 𝑇2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 , where the −𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 is used
because 𝑇1 is directed downwards.
Thus, Resultant force 𝐹 = 𝑇2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 − 𝑇1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Applying Newton’s second law of motion,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜕2 𝑢
𝑇2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 − 𝑇1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝜌𝛿𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑡 2 [density=mass/length ]

Divide throughout by 𝑇

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 98

 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝜌𝛿𝑥 𝜕2 𝑢
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = ∗
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑡 2

1 1 𝜌𝛿𝑥 𝜕2 𝑢
. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = ∗ 𝜕𝑡 2 [From (1) ]
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑇

𝜌 𝜕2 𝑢
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 𝑇 . 𝛿𝑥. 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜌 𝜕2 𝑢
(𝜕𝑥 ) − (𝜕𝑥 ) = 𝑇 . 𝛿𝑥. 𝜕𝑡 2
𝑥+𝛿𝑥 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
( ) −( ) 𝜌 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝑥+𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑇 . 𝜕𝑡 2
𝛿𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
( ) −( ) 𝜌 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝑥+𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥
lim = lim 𝑇 . 𝜕𝑡 2
𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝑥→0

𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜌 𝜕2 𝑢
( ) = 𝑇 . 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑢 𝜌 𝜕2 𝑢
= .
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑇 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝑢 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑢
= 𝜌 . 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑡 2

𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝑇
= 𝒄𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝟐 [𝑐 2 = 𝜌]
𝝏𝒕𝟐

OR
𝒖𝒕𝒕 = 𝒄𝟐 𝒖𝒙𝒙

Derivation of One dimensional Heat Equation [𝑢𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 ]

Consider a homogeneous bar of uniform cross section 𝐴. Suppose that the sides are
covered with a material impervious to heat so that streamlines of heat-flow are all parallel and
perpendicular to area. Take one end of the bar as the origin and the direction of flow as the
positive x-axis.
Let 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) be the temperature of the slab at a distance 𝑥 from the origin.Consider an
element of slab between the plane 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 and ABCD at a distance 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 from the end
𝑂 .Let 𝜌 be the density,s the specific heat and k the thermal conductivity.

Let 𝛿𝑢 be the change in temperature in a slab of thickness 𝛿𝑥 of the bar.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 99

 The mass of the element = 𝐴𝜌𝛿𝑥
The quantity of heat stored in the slab element = 𝐴𝜌𝑠𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑢
𝜕𝑢
∴ Rate of increase of heat in this slab element is R = (𝐴𝜌𝑠𝛿𝑥) 𝜕𝑡

Let 𝑅1 be the rate of inflow of heat and 𝑅2 is the outflow of heat.

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
We have, 𝑅1 = −𝑘𝐴 [𝜕𝑥 ] , 𝑅2 = −𝑘𝐴 [𝜕𝑥 ]
𝑥 𝑥+𝛿𝑥

The negative sign is due to decrease in temperature as increase in 𝑡

Thus, 𝑅 = 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
(𝐴𝜌𝑠𝛿𝑥) 𝜕𝑡 = −𝑘𝐴 [𝜕𝑥 ] + 𝑘𝐴 [𝜕𝑥 ]
𝑥 𝑥+𝛿𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
(𝐴𝜌𝑠𝛿𝑥) 𝜕𝑡 = 𝑘𝐴 [[𝜕𝑥 ] − [𝜕𝑥 ] ] [ Divide by 𝐴]
𝑥+𝛿𝑥 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 [[ ] −[ ] ]
𝜕𝑥 𝑥+𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥
𝜌𝑠 𝜕𝑡 = 𝑘 𝛿𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 [[ ] −[ ] ]
𝜕𝑥 𝑥+𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥
lim𝜌𝑠 𝜕𝑡 = lim𝑘
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢
𝜌𝑠 𝜕𝑡 = 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 (𝜕𝑥 )

𝜕𝑢 𝑘 𝜕2 𝑢
= 𝜌𝑠 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑡

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝑘
= 𝒄𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝟐 [𝑐 2 = 𝜌𝑠]
𝝏𝒕

OR
𝒖𝒕 = 𝒄𝟐 𝒖𝒙𝒙
Various possible solutions of the one dimensional wave equation [𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 ] by method of
separation of variables
Consider, 𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
= 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑡 2

Let 𝑢 = 𝑋𝑇 --- (*) where 𝑋 = 𝑋(𝑥) , 𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑡) be the solution of above equation.
𝜕2 (𝑋𝑇) 𝜕2 (𝑋𝑇)
= 𝑐2
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑋
𝑋 𝜕𝑡 2 = 𝑐 2 𝑇 𝜕𝑥 2

Divide by X𝑇𝑐 2 , we have

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 100

 1 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑋
= = 𝑘(𝑆𝑎𝑦)
𝑐2𝑇 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑋 𝜕𝑥 2

1 𝜕2 𝑋 1 𝜕2 𝑇
=𝑘 =𝑘
𝑋 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐2𝑇 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝑋 𝜕2 𝑇
= 𝑘𝑋 = 𝑘𝑐 2 𝑇
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝑋 𝜕2 𝑇
− 𝑘𝑋 = 0 − 𝑘𝑐 2 𝑇 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2

(𝐷2 − 𝑘)𝑋 = 0 (𝐷2 − 𝑘𝑐 2 )𝑇 = 0

A.E :
𝑚2 − 𝑘 = 0 𝑚2 − 𝑘𝑐 2 = 0
𝑚2 = 𝑘 --- (1) 𝑚2 = 𝑘𝑐 2 --- (2)

Case-1: When 𝑘 = 𝑝2 , 𝑘 is positive

(1) ⇒ 𝑚2 = 𝑝2 (2) ⇒ 𝑚2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2
𝑚 = ±𝑝 𝑚 = ±𝑝𝑐
𝒎 = 𝒑, −𝒑 𝒎 = 𝒑𝒄, −𝒑𝒄
The solution is,
𝑋 = 𝑋𝑐 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐
𝑿 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒑𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄′𝟏 𝒆𝒑𝒄𝒕 + 𝒄′𝟐 𝒆−𝒑𝒄𝒕
∴ (*) ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑋𝑇 = [𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒑𝒙 ][𝒄′𝟏 𝒆𝒑𝒄𝒕 + 𝒄′𝟐 𝒆−𝒑𝒄𝒕 ] , is the solution of PDE.
Case-2: When 𝑘 = −𝑝2 , 𝑘 is negative
(1) ⇒ 𝑚2 = −𝑝2 (2) ⇒ 𝑚2 = −𝑝2 𝑐 2
𝒎 = ±𝒑𝒊 𝒎 = ±𝒑𝒄𝒊
The solution is,
𝑋 = 𝑋𝑐 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐
𝑿 = 𝒄𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄′𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒑𝒄𝒕) + 𝒄′𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒑𝒄𝒕)
∴ (*) ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑋𝑇 = [𝒄𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒙][𝒄′𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒑𝒄𝒕) + 𝒄′𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒑𝒄𝒕)] , is the solution of
PDE.
Case-3: When 𝑘 = 0
(1) ⇒ 𝑚2 = 0 (2) ⇒ 𝑚2 = 0
𝒎 = 𝟎, 𝟎 𝒎 = 𝟎, 𝟎

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 101

 The solution is,
𝑋 = 𝑋𝑐 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐
𝑿 = 𝒄𝟓 + 𝒄𝟔 𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄′𝟓 + 𝒄′𝟔 𝒕
∴ (*) ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑋𝑇 = [𝒄𝟓 + 𝒄𝟔 𝑥][𝒄′𝟓 + 𝒄′𝟔 𝒕] , is the solution of PDE.
Various possible solutions of the one dimensional Heat equation [𝑢𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 ] by method of
separation of variables
Consider, 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
= 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑡

Let 𝑢 = 𝑋𝑇 --- (*) where 𝑋 = 𝑋(𝑥) , 𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑡) be the solution of above equation.
𝜕(𝑋𝑇) 𝜕2 (𝑋𝑇)
= 𝑐2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑋
𝑋 𝜕𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑇 𝜕𝑥 2

Divide by X𝑇𝑐 2 , we have

1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑋
= 𝑋 𝜕𝑥 2 = 𝑘(𝑆𝑎𝑦)
𝑐2𝑇 𝜕𝑡

1 𝜕2 𝑋 1 𝜕𝑇
=𝑘 =𝑘
𝑋 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐2𝑇 𝜕𝑡

𝜕2 𝑋 𝜕𝑇
= 𝑘𝑋 = 𝑘𝑐 2 𝑇
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡

𝜕2 𝑋 𝜕𝑇
− 𝑘𝑋 = 0 − 𝑘𝑐 2 𝑇 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡

(𝐷2 − 𝑘)𝑋 = 0 (𝐷 − 𝑘𝑐 2 )𝑇 = 0
A.E :
𝑚2 − 𝑘 = 0 𝑚 − 𝑘𝑐 2 = 0
𝑚2 = 𝑘 --- (1) 𝑚 = 𝑘𝑐 2 --- (2)
Case-1: When 𝑘 = 𝑝2 , 𝑘 is positive
(1) ⇒ 𝑚2 = 𝑝2 (2) ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2
𝑚 = ±𝑝 𝒎 = 𝒑𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒎 = 𝒑, −𝒑
The solution is,
𝑋 = 𝑋𝑐 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐
𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒕
𝑿 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒑𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄′𝟏 𝒆𝒑

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 102

 𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒕
∴ (*) ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑋𝑇 = [𝒄𝟏 𝒆𝒑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒆−𝒑𝒙 ][𝒄′𝟏 𝒆𝒑 ] , is the solution of PDE.

Case-2: When 𝑘 = −𝑝2 , 𝑘 is negative

(1) ⇒ 𝑚2 = −𝑝2 (2) ⇒ 𝑚 = −𝑝2 𝑐 2
𝒎 = ±𝒑𝒊 𝒎 = −𝒑𝟐 𝒄𝟐
The solution is,
𝑋 = 𝑋𝑐 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐
𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒕
𝑿 = 𝒄𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄′𝟑 𝒆−𝒑
𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒕
∴ (*) ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑋𝑇 = [𝒄𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒙 + 𝒄𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒙][𝒄′𝟑 𝒆−𝒑 ] , is the solution of
PDE.
Case-3: When 𝑘 = 0
(1) ⇒ 𝑚2 = 0 (2) ⇒ 𝑚 = 0
𝒎 = 𝟎, 𝟎 𝒎=𝟎
The solution is,
𝑋 = 𝑋𝑐 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐
𝑿 = 𝒄𝟓 + 𝒄𝟔 𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄′𝟓
∴ (*) ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑋𝑇 = [𝒄𝟓 + 𝒄𝟔 𝑥][𝒄′𝟓 ] , is the solution of PDE.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 103

 MODULE-4
NUMERICAL METHODS -1
Numerical method provides various technique to find approximate solution to different
problem using simple operation.
Numerical Solution of Polynomial and Transcendental Equations
Given an equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 it is generally not possible to find roots ′𝑥′ such that 𝑓(𝑥)
becomes zero exactly. We discuss two numerical methods for the solution of algebraic and
transcendental equation.
Equation involving algebraic quantity like 𝑥,𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 ,… are called algebraic equation.
Eg: 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 , 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 = 80
Equation involving non algebraic quantity like 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥, … are called
transcendental equation.
Eg: 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 2 = 0 , 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 1.2 = 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 2𝑥
Numerical methods are often a repetitive nature. This consist repeated execution of
the same process where at each step to result of the previous step is used. This is known as
iterative process.
We discuss two numerical methods
1. Regula-Falsi method
2. Newton-Raphson method
Regula-Falsi method (or) Method of False position
Formula:
𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)

Problems
1. Using the method of false position find the real root correct to 3 decimal places of the
equation 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 − 11 = 0.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 − 11
𝑓(0) = −11
𝑓(1) = −5 < 0
𝑓(2) = 7 > 0
The root lies between (1,2).

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 104

 Wkt,
𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)

Step-1: a=1 b=2

𝑓(𝑎) = −5 𝑓(𝑏) = 7
1.(7)−2.(−5)
𝑥1 = (7)−(−5)

7+10
𝑥1 = 7+5

𝒙𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟕
𝑓(1.417) = −1.070 < 0
𝑓(2) = 7 > 0
The root lies between (1.417,2).
Step-2: a = 1.417 b=2
𝑓(𝑎) = −1.070 𝑓(𝑏) = 7
(1.417).(7)−2.(−1.070)
𝑥2 = (7)−(−1.070)
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗𝟒
𝑓(1.494) = −0.195 < 0
𝑓(2) = 7 > 0
The root lies between (1.417,2).
Step-3: a = 1.494 b=2
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.195 𝑓(𝑏) = 7
(1.494)(7)−2(−0.195)
𝑥3 = (7)−(−0.195)

𝒙𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟖
𝑓(1.508) = −0.031 < 0
𝑓(2) = 7 > 0
The root lies between (1.508,2).
Step-4: a = 1.508 b=2
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.031 𝑓(𝑏) = 7
(1.508)(7)−2(−0.031)
𝑥4 = (7)−(−0.031)

𝒙𝟒 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝟎

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 105

 𝑓(1.510) = −0.007 < 0
𝑓(2) = 7 > 0
The root lies between (1.510,2).
Step-5: a = 1.510 b=2
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.007 𝑓(𝑏) = 7
(1.510)(7)−2(−0.007)
𝑥5 = (7)−(−0.007)

𝒙𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝟎
∴ The real root is 1.510
2. Using the method of false position find the real root correct to 3 decimal places of the
equation 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 − 7 = 0.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 − 7
𝑓(0) = −7
𝑓(1) = −1
𝑓(2) = −9 < 0
𝑓(3) = 5 > 0
The root lies between (2,3).
Wkt,
𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)

Step-1: a=2 b=3

𝑓(𝑎) = −9 𝑓(𝑏) = 5
2.(5)−3.(−9)
𝑥1 = (5)−(−9)

𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝟑
𝑓(2.643) = −1.752 < 0
𝑓(3) = 5 > 0
The root lies between (2.643,3).
Step-2: a = 2.643 b=3
𝑓(𝑎) = −1.752 𝑓(𝑏) = 5
(2.643)(5)−3.(−1.752)
𝑥2 = (5)−(−1.752)

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟑𝟔

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 106

 𝑓(2.736) = −0.199 < 0
𝑓(3) = 5 > 0
The root lies between (2.736,3).
Step-3: a = 2.736 b=3
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.199 𝑓(𝑏) = 5
(2.736)(5)−3.(−0.199)
𝑥3 = (5)−(−0.199)

𝒙𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟔
𝑓(2.746) = −0.024 < 0
𝑓(3) = 5 > 0
The root lies between (2.746,3).
Step-4: a = 2.746 b=3
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.024 𝑓(𝑏) = 5
(2.746)(5)−3.(−0.024)
𝑥4 = (5)−(−0.024)

𝒙𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟕
𝑓(2.747) = −0.006 < 0
𝑓(3) = 5 > 0
The root lies between (2.747,3).
Step-5: a = 2.747 b=3
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.006 𝑓(𝑏) = 5
(2.747)(5)−3.(−0.006)
𝑥5 = (5)−(−0.006)

𝒙𝟓 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟕
∴ The real root is 2.747.
3. Find the real root of the equation 𝑥 log10 𝑥 = 1.2 by Regula falsi method.
Carry out 3 iterations.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 log10 𝑥 − 1.2
𝑓(1) = −1.2 < 0
𝑓(2) = −0.5979 < 0
𝑓(3) = 0.2314 > 0
The root lies between (2,3).
Wkt,

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 107

 𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 =
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)

Step-1: 𝑎=2 𝑏=3

𝑓(𝑎) = −0.5979 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.2314
2(0.2314)−3(−0.5979)
𝑥1 = (0.2314)−(−0.5979)

𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟏𝟎
𝑓(2.7210) = −0.0171 < 0
𝑓(3) = 0.2314 > 0
The root lies between (2.7210,3).
Step-2: a = 2.7210 b=3
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.0171 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.2314
(2.7210)(0.2314 )−3(−0.0171)
𝑥2 = (0.2314)−(−0.0171)

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟐
𝑓(2.7402) = −0.0004 < 0
𝑓(3) = 0.2314 > 0
The root lies between (2.7402,3).
Step-3: a = 2.7402 b=3
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.0004 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.2314
(2.7402)(0.2314 )−3(−0.0004)
𝑥3 = (0.2314)−(−0.0004)

𝒙𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟎6
∴ The real root is 2.7406.
4. Find the real root of the equation 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 1 upto 3 decimal places using RF method.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1
𝑓(0) = 2 > 0
𝑓(1) = −1.460 < 0
The root lies between (0,1).
Wkt,
𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)

Step-1: 𝑎=0 𝑏=1

𝑓(𝑎) = 2 𝑓(𝑏) = −1.460

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 108

 0(−1.460)−1(2)
𝑥1 = (−1.460)−(2)

𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟖
𝑓(0.578) = 0.104 > 0
𝑓(1) = −1.460 < 0
The root lies between (0.578,1).
Step-2: 𝑎 = 0.578 b=1
𝑓(𝑎) = 0.104 𝑓(𝑏) = −1.460
(0.578)(−1.460 )−1(0.104)
𝑥2 = (−1.460)−(0.104)

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟔
𝑓(0.606) = 0. 004 > 0
𝑓(1) = −1.460 < 0
The root lies between (0.606,1).
Step-3: 𝑎 = 0.606 b=1
𝑓(𝑎) = 0.004 𝑓(𝑏) = −1.460
(0.606)(−1.460 )−1(0.004)
𝑥3 = (−1.460)−(0.004)

𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟕
𝑓(0.607) = 0
∴ The real root is 0.607.
5. Find the real root of the equation 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 2 upto three decimal places using RF
method. Carryout 4 iterations.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 2
𝑓(0) = −2 < 0
𝑓(1) = 0.718 > 0
The root lies between (0,1).
Wkt,
𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
Step-1: 𝑎=0 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −2 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.718
0(0.718)−1(−2)
𝑥1 = (0.718)−(−2)

𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟑𝟔

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 109

 𝑓(0.736) = −0.464 < 0
𝑓(1) = 0.718 > 0
The root lies between (0.736,1).
Step-2: 𝑎 = 0.736 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.464 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.718
(0.736)(0.718)−1(−0.464)
𝑥2 = (0.718)−(−0.464)
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟎
𝑓(0.840) = −0.054 < 0
𝑓(1) = 0.718 > 0
The root lies between (0.840,1).
Step-3: 𝑎 = 0.840 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.054 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.718
(0.840)(0.718)−1(−0.054)
𝑥3 = (0.718)−(−0.054)
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟏
𝑓(0.851) = −0.007 < 0
𝑓(1) = 0.718 > 0
The root lies between (0.851,1).
Step-4: 𝑎 = 0.851 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.007 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.718
(0.851)(0.718)−1(−0.007)
𝑥4 = (0.718)−(−0.007)
𝒙𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟐
∴ The real root is 0.852.

6. Find the real root of the equation 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0 using RF method.

Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑓(0) = −1 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0,1).
Wkt,
𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
Step-1: 𝑎=0 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −1 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780
0(2.1780)−1(−1)
𝑥1 = (2.1780)−(−1)

𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟕
𝑓(0.3147) = −0.5198 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0.3147,1).
Step-2: 𝑎 = 0.3147 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.5198 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 110

 (0.3147)(2.1780)−1(−0.5198)
𝑥2 = (2.1780)−(−0.5198)

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟕
𝑓(0.4467) = −0.2036 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0.4467,1).
Step-3: 𝑎 = 0.4467 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.2036 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780
(0.4467)(2.1780)−1(−0.2036)
𝑥3 = (2.1780)−(−0.2036)

𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟒𝟎
𝑓(0.4940) = −0.0708 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0.4940,1).
Step-4: 𝑎 = 0.4940 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.0708 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780
(0.4940)(2.1780)−1(−0.0708)
𝑥4 = (2.1780)−(−0.0708)

𝒙𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟗𝟗
𝑓(0.5099) = −0.0237 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0.5099,1).
Step-5: 𝑎 = 0.5099 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.0237 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780
(0.5099)(2.1780)−1(−0.0237)
𝑥5 = (2.1780)−(−0.0237)

𝒙𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐
𝑓(0.5152) = −0.0078 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0.5152,1).
Step-6: 𝑎 = 0.5152 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.0078 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780
(0.5152)(2.1780)−1(−0.0078)
𝑥6 = (2.1780)−(−0.0078)

𝒙𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟔𝟗
𝑓(0.5169) = −0.0026 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0.5169,1).
Step-7: 𝑎 = 0.5169 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.0026 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 111

 (0.5169)(2.1780)−1(−0.0026)
𝑥7 = (2.1780)−(−0.0026)

𝒙𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟕𝟓
𝑓(0.5175) = −0.0008 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0.5175,1).
Step-8: 𝑎 = 0.5175 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.0008 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780
(0.5175)(2.1780)−1(−0.0008)
𝑥8 = (2.1780)−(−0.0008)

𝒙𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟕𝟕
𝑓(0.5177) = −0.0002 < 0
𝑓(1) = 2.1780 > 0
The root lies between (0.5177,1).
Step-9: 𝑎 = 0.5177 𝑏=1
𝑓(𝑎) = −0.0002 𝑓(𝑏) = 2.1780
(0.5177)(2.1780)−1(−0.0002)
𝑥9 = (2.1780)−(−0.0002)

𝒙𝟗 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟕𝟕
∴ The real root is 0.5177.

7. Use RF method to find the real root of the equation 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 0, the root
lies between 2 & 3. Carryout 3 iteration.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥
𝑓(2) = −1.2210 < 0
𝑓(3) = 0.8525 > 0
The root lies between (2,3).
Wkt,
𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
Step-1: 𝑎=2 𝑏=3
𝑓(𝑎) = −1.2210 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.8525
2(0.8525)−3(−1.2210)
𝑥1 = (0.8525)−(−1.2210)

𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟗
𝑓(2.5889) = 0.3720 > 0
𝑓(2) = −1.2210 < 0
The root lies between (2,2.5889).
Step-2: 𝑎=2 𝑏 = 2.5889
𝑓(𝑎) = −1.2210 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.3720

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 112

 2(0.3720)−(2.5889)(−1.2210)
𝑥2 = (0.3720)−(−1.2210)

𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝟏𝟒
𝑓(2.4514) = 0.1596 > 0
𝑓(2) = −1.2210 < 0
The root lies between (2,2.4514).
Step-3: 𝑎=2 𝑏 = 2.4514
𝑓(𝑎) = −1.2210 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.1596
2(0.1596)−(2.4514)(−1.2210)
𝑥3 = (0.1596)−(−1.2210)

𝒙𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟐
∴ The real root is 2.3992.
8. Find the real root of the equation 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 0 using RF method .Carry out 3
iterations.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 4
𝑓(0) = 4
𝑓(1) = 2
𝑓(2) = 6
𝑓(3) = 22
𝑓(−1) = 6 𝑓(−2) = 2 > 0 𝑓(−3) = −14 < 0
The root lies between (−3, −2).
Wkt,
𝑎𝑓(𝑏)−𝑏𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
Step-1: 𝑎 = −3 𝑏 = −2
𝑓(𝑎) = −14 𝑓(𝑏) = 2
(−3)(2)−(−2)(−14)
𝑥1 = (2)−(−14)

𝒙𝟏 = −𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑓(−2.1250) = 0.7793 > 0
𝑓(−3) = −14 < 0
The root lies between (−3, −2.1250).
Step-2: 𝑎 = −3 𝑏 = −2.1250
𝑓(𝑎) = −14 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.7793
(−3)(0.7793)−(−2.1250)(−14)
𝑥2 = (0.7793)−(−14)

𝒙𝟐 = −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝟏
𝑓(−2.1250) = 0.2794 > 0
𝑓(−3) = −14 < 0
The root lies between (−3, −2.1711).
Step-3: 𝑎 = −3 𝑏 = −2.1711
𝑓(𝑎) = −14 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.2794

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 113

 (−3)(0.2794)−(−2.1711)(−14)
𝑥3 = (0.2794)−(−14)

𝒙𝟑 = −𝟐. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟑
∴ The real root is −2.1873.

Newton-Raphson Method
Formula:
𝒇(𝒙 )
𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 ) ; 𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑛 ) ≠ 0 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …
𝒏
𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑛 = 0 , 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − 𝑓′ (𝑥0 ) ; 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) ≠ 0
0
𝑓(𝑥1 )
𝑛 = 1 , 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − ; 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 ) ≠ 0 and so on.
𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 )

Problems
1. Use NR method to find the real root of the equation 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 5 = 0 , correct to 3
decimal places.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 5
𝑓(0) = −5
𝑓(1) = −7
𝑓(2) = −3
𝑓(3) = 13
The root lies between (2,3).
Since 𝑓(2) lies nearer to 0.
Let 𝑥0 = 2
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 5
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 3
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 1: 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − 𝑓′ (𝑥0 )
0
𝑓(2)
𝑥1 = 2 − 𝑓 ′ (2)
(−3)
𝑥1 = 2 − (9)
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 2: 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑓′ (𝑥1 )
1
𝑓(2.333)
𝑥2 = 2.333 − 𝑓′ (2.333)
(0.699)
𝑥2 = 2.333 − (13.329)
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟖𝟏
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 3: 𝑥3 = 𝑥2 − 𝑓′ (𝑥2 )
2
𝑓(2.281)
𝑥3 = 2.281 − 𝑓′ (2.281)
(0.025)
𝑥3 = 2.281 − (12.609)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 114

 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕𝟗
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 4: 𝑥4 = 𝑥3 − 𝑓′ (𝑥3 )
3
𝑓(2.279)
𝑥4 = 2.279 − 𝑓′ (2.279)
(0)
𝑥4 = 2.279 − (12.582)
𝒙𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕𝟗
∴ The real root is 2.279.

2. Find the real root of the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4 = 0 applying NR method.

Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4
𝑓(0) = 4
𝑓(1) = 11
𝑓(−1) = 1 > 0
𝑓(−2) = −6 < 0
The root lies between (−2, −1).
Since 𝑓(−1) lies nearer to 0.
Let 𝑥0 = −1
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 1: 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − 𝑓′ (𝑥0 )
0
𝑓(−1)
𝑥1 = (−1) − 𝑓′ (−1)
(1)
𝑥1 = (−1) − (4)
𝒙𝟏 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 2: 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑓′ (𝑥1 )
1
𝑓(−1.25)
𝑥2 = −1.25 − 𝑓′ (−1.25)
(−0.1406)
𝑥2 = −1.25 − (5.1875)
𝒙𝟐 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟗
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 3: 𝑥3 = 𝑥2 − 𝑓′ (𝑥2 )
2
𝑓(−1.2229)
𝑥3 = −1.2229 − 𝑓′ (−1.2229)
(−0.0020)
𝑥3 = −1.2229 − (5.0407)
𝒙𝟑 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟓
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 4: 𝑥4 = 𝑥3 − 𝑓′ (𝑥3 )
3
𝑓(−1.2225)
𝑥4 = −1.2225 − 𝑓′ (−1.2225)
(0)
𝑥4 = −1.2225 − (5.0385)
𝒙𝟒 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟓

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 115

 ∴ The real root is −1.2225.

3. Use NR method to find the real root of 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0 near 𝑥 = 𝜋. Carryout the
iteration upto 4 decimal places of accuracy.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Let 𝑥0 = 𝜋
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 1: 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − 𝑓′ (𝑥0 )
0
𝑓(𝜋)
𝑥1 = (𝜋) −
𝑓 ′ (𝜋 )
(−1)
𝑥1 = (𝜋) − (−𝜋)
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟑𝟑
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 2: 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑓′ (𝑥1 )
1
𝑓(2.8233)
𝑥2 = 2.8233 − 𝑓′ (2.8233)
(−0.0662)
𝑥2 = 2.8233 − (−2.6815)
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟔
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 3: 𝑥3 = 𝑥2 − 𝑓′ (𝑥2 )
2
𝑓(2.7986)
𝑥3 = 2.7986 − 𝑓′ (2.7986)
(−0.0006)
𝑥3 = 2.7986 − (−2.6356)
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟒
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 4: 𝑥4 = 𝑥3 − 𝑓′ (𝑥3 )
3
𝑓(2.7984)
𝑥4 = 2.7984 − 𝑓′ (2.7984)
(0)
𝑥4 = 2.7984 − (−2.6352)
𝒙𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟒
∴ The real root is 2.7984.

4. Use NR method to find the real root of the equation 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 2, correct to 3 decimal places.
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 2
𝑓(0) = −2 < 0
𝑓(1) = 0.718 > 0
The root lies between (0,1).
Since 𝑓(1) lies nearer to 0.
Let 𝑥0 = 1
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 116

 Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 1: 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − 𝑓′ (𝑥0 )
0
𝑓(1)
𝑥1 = 1 − 𝑓 ′ (1)
(0.718)
𝑥1 = 1 − (5.437)
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟖
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 2: 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑓′ (𝑥1 )
1
𝑓(0.868)
𝑥2 = 0.868 − 𝑓′ (0.868)
(0.068)
𝑥2 = 0.868 − (4.450)
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟑
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 3: 𝑥3 = 𝑥2 − 𝑓′ (𝑥2 )
2
𝑓(0.853)
𝑥3 = 0.853 − 𝑓′ (0.853)
(0.002)
𝑥3 = 0.853 − (4.348)
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟑
∴ The real root is 0.853.

5. Use NR method to find the real root of the equation 𝑥 + log10 𝑥 = 2 .

Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + log10 𝑥 − 2
𝑓(1) = −1 < 0
𝑓(2) = 0.3010 > 0
The root lies between (1,2).
Since 𝑓(2) lies nearer to 0.
Let 𝑥0 = 2
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + log10 𝑥 − 2
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1 + log10 𝑒 − 0
𝑥
′ (𝑥) 0.4343
𝑓 =1+ 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥0 )
Step 1: 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − 𝑓′ (𝑥 )
0
𝑓(2)
𝑥1 = (2) − 𝑓′ (2)
(0.3010)
𝑥1 = (2) − 1.2172
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟕
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 2: 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑓′ (𝑥1 )
1
𝑓(1.7527)
𝑥2 = 1.7527 − 𝑓′ (1.7527)
(−0.0036)
𝑥2 = 1.7527 − (1.2478)
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝟓𝟔

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 117

 𝑓(𝑥2 )
Step 3: 𝑥3 = 𝑥2 −
𝑓 ′ (𝑥2 )
𝑓(1.7556)
𝑥3 = 1.7556 − 𝑓′ (1.7556)
(0)
𝑥3 = 1.7556 − (1.2474)
𝒙𝟑 = 1.7556
∴ The real root of the equation is 1.7556.

6. Find the approximate root of the equation 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1 = 0 using NR method.

Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1
𝑓(0) = −1 < 0
𝑓(1) = 1.2874 > 0
The root lies between (0,1).
Since 𝑓(0) lies nearer to 0.
Let 𝑥0 = 0
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥. 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 1: 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − 𝑓′ (𝑥0 )
0
𝑓(0)
𝑥1 = 0 − 𝑓 ′ (0)
(−1)
𝑥1 = 0 − (1)
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟏
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 2: 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑓′ (𝑥1 )
1
𝑓(1)
𝑥2 = 1 − 𝑓′ (1)
(1.2874)
𝑥2 = 1 − (3.7560)
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟕𝟐
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 3: 𝑥3 = 𝑥2 − 𝑓′ (𝑥2 )
2
𝑓(0.6572)
𝑥3 = 0.6572 − 𝑓′ (0.6572)
(0.1787)
𝑥3 = 0.6572 − (2.7062)
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟏𝟐
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 4: 𝑥4 = 𝑥3 − 𝑓′ (𝑥3 )
3
𝑓(0.5912)
𝑥4 = 0.5912 −
𝑓 ′ (0.5912)
(0.0067)
𝑥4 = 0.5912 − (2.5063)
𝒙𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟓
𝑓(𝑥 )
Step 5: 𝑥5 = 𝑥4 − 𝑓′ (𝑥4 )
4
𝑓(0.5885)
𝑥5 = 0.5885 − 𝑓 ′ (0.5885)

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 118

 (−0.0001)
𝑥5 = 0.5885 − (2.4982)
𝒙𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟓
∴ The real root of the equation is 0.5885.

7. Derive an iterative formula to find √𝑁 and hence find √12 .

Sol: Let 𝑥 = √𝑁
Square on both sides
𝑥2 = 𝑁
𝑥2 − 𝑁 = 0
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑁
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
(𝑥𝑛 2 −𝑁)
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − (2𝑥𝑛 )
2 2
(2𝑥𝑛 −𝑥𝑛 +𝑁)
𝑥𝑛+1 = 2𝑥𝑛
𝑥𝑛 2 +𝑁
𝑥𝑛+1 = 2𝑥𝑛
1 𝑥𝑛 2 𝑁
𝑥𝑛+1 = 2 [ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ]
𝑛 𝑛
𝟏 𝑵
𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝟐 [𝒙𝒏 + 𝒙 ] ,is an iterative formula.
𝒏

To find √𝟏𝟐:
Here N = 𝟏𝟐
Wkt, √9 = 3 , √16 = 4
Let 𝑥0 = 3
1 𝑁
Step-1: 𝑥1 = 2 [𝑥0 + 𝑥 ]
0
1 12
𝑥1 = 2 [3 + ]
3
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟓
1 𝑁
Step-2: 𝑥2 = 2 [𝑥1 + 𝑥 ]
1
1 12
𝑥2 = 2 [3.5 + 3.5]
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟒𝟑
1 𝑁
Step-3: 𝑥3 = 2 [𝑥2 + 𝑥 ]
2
1 12
𝑥3 = 2 [3.4643 + 3.4643]
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟒𝟏
1 𝑁
Step-4: 𝑥4 = 2 [𝑥3 + 𝑥 ]
3
1 12
𝑥4 = 2 [3.4641 + 3.4641]
𝒙𝟒 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟒𝟏
Thus, √𝟏𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟒𝟏.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 119

 8. Use NR method to derive an iterative formula to find cube root of a positive
integer N and hence find cube root of 29.
3
Sol: Let 𝑥 = √𝑁
Cube on both sides
𝑥3 = 𝑁
𝑥3 − 𝑁 = 0
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑁
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
(𝑥𝑛 3 −𝑁)
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − (3𝑥𝑛 2 )
3
(3𝑥𝑛 3 −𝑥𝑛 +𝑁)
𝑥𝑛+1 = 3𝑥𝑛 2
2𝑥𝑛 3 +𝑁
𝑥𝑛+1 = 3𝑥𝑛 2
1 2𝑥𝑛 3 𝑁
𝑥𝑛+1 = 3 [ 𝑥 2
+ 𝑥 2]
𝑛 𝑛
𝟏 𝑵
𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝟑 [𝟐𝒙𝒏 + 𝒙 𝟐 ] ,is an iterative formula.
𝒏
𝟑
To find √𝟐𝟗:
Here N = 𝟐𝟗
Wkt, √27 = 3 , √64 = 4
Let 𝑥0 = 3
1 𝑁
Step-1: 𝑥1 = 3 [2𝑥0 + 𝒙 𝟐 ]
𝟎
1 29
𝑥1 = 3 [2(3) + (3)2 ]
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟕𝟒𝟏
1 𝑁
Step-2: 𝑥2 = 3 [2𝑥1 + 𝒙 𝟐 ]
𝟏
1 29
𝑥2 = 3 [2(3.0741) + (3.0741)2 ]
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟑
1 𝑁
Step-3: 𝑥3 = 3 [2𝑥2 + 𝒙 𝟐 ]
𝟐
1 29
𝑥3 = 3 [2(3.0723) + (3.0723)2 ]
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟑
𝟑
Thus, √𝟐𝟗 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟑.

9. Use NR method to find an iterative formula for the reciprocal of the square root of a
1
positive number and hence find (17)− ⁄2 correct to 4 decimal places.
1
Sol: Let 𝑥 =
√𝑁
Square on both sides
1
𝑥2 = 𝑁
1
𝑥2 − 𝑁 = 0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 120

 1
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −
𝑁
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
1
(𝑥𝑛 2 − )
𝑁
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − (2𝑥𝑛 )
2 2 1
(2𝑥𝑛 −𝑥𝑛 + )
𝑁
𝑥𝑛+1 = 2𝑥𝑛
1
𝑥𝑛 2 +
𝑁
𝑥𝑛+1 = 2𝑥𝑛
1
1 𝑥𝑛 2 𝑁
𝑥𝑛+1 = 2 [ 𝑥 + ]
𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝟏 𝟏
𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝟐 [𝒙𝒏 + 𝑵 𝒙 ] ,is an iterative formula.
𝒏

𝟏
To find (𝟏𝟕)− ⁄𝟐 :
Here 𝑁 = 17
1 1
Wkt, = 0.3333 , = 0.25
√9 √16
Let 𝑥0 = 0.25
1 1
Step-1: 𝑥1 = 2 [𝑥0 + 𝑁.𝑥 ]
0
1 1
𝑥1 = 2 [0.25 + 17(0.25)]
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟔
1 1
Step-2: 𝑥2 = 2 [𝑥1 + 𝑁.𝑥 ]
1
1 1
𝑥2 = 2 [0.2426 + 17(0.2426)]
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟓
𝟏
Thus, = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟓
√𝟏𝟕

10. Use NR method to find an iterative formula for the reciprocal of positive number and
1
hence find 31.
1
Sol: Let 𝑥 = 𝑁
Take reciprocal on b.s
1
=𝑁
𝑥
1
−𝑁 =0
𝑥
1
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑁
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − 𝑥 2
𝒇(𝒙 )
We know that 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 − 𝒇′ (𝒙𝒏 )
𝒏
1
( −𝑁)
𝑥𝑛
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − 1
(− )
𝑥𝑛 2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 121

 1 𝑥𝑛 2
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 + ( − 𝑁 ).
𝑥𝑛 1
𝑥𝑛 2
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 + ( 𝑥 − 𝑁𝑥𝑛 2 )
𝑛
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑁𝑥𝑛 2
𝑥𝑛+1 = 2𝑥𝑛 − 𝑁𝑥𝑛 2
𝒙𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒙𝒏 [𝟐 − 𝑵𝒙𝒏 ] , is an iterative formula.

𝟏
To find 𝟑𝟏:
Here 𝑁 = 31
1
Let 𝑥0 = 25 = 0.04
Step-1: 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 [2 − 𝑁𝑥0 ]
𝑥1 = (0.04)[2 − 31(0.04)]
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟒
Step-2: 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 [2 − 𝑁𝑥1 ]
𝑥2 = (0.0304)[2 − 31(0.0304)]
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟐
Step-3: 𝑥3 = 𝑥2 [2 − 𝑁𝑥2 ]
𝑥3 = (0.0322)[2 − 31(0.0322)]
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟑
𝟏
Thus, 𝟑𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟑.

FINITE DIFFERENCES

Newton’s Forward interpolation formula (NFIF)

The value of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑟ℎ is approximately given by
𝑟(𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 − 2) 3
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ⋯
2! 3!
𝑟(𝑟 − 1)(𝑟 − 2) … [𝑟 − (𝑛 − 1)] 𝑛
+ ∆ 𝑦0
𝑛!
𝑥−𝑥
Where, ′𝑟′ is any real number , 𝑟 = ℎ 0 ; ℎ is step length.

Newton’s Backward interpolation formula (NBIF)

The value of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑟ℎ is approximately given by
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 2 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 3
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑟𝛻𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 𝑦𝑛 + ⋯
2! 3!
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) … [𝑟 + (𝑛 − 1)] 𝑛
+ 𝛻 𝑦𝑛
𝑛!
𝑥−𝑥𝑛
Where, ′𝑟′ is any real number , 𝑟 = ℎ ; ℎ is step length.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 122

 Problems
1. Given 𝑓(0) = 1, 𝑓(1) = 3, 𝑓(2) = 7, 𝑓(3) = 13, find 𝑓(0.1) using Newton’s
forward interpolation formula.
Sol:
𝒙 𝒚 𝑰𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫

𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = 1
∆𝑦0 = 3 − 1 = 2
1 3 ∆2 𝑦0 = 4 − 2 = 2
7−3=4 ∆3 𝑦0 = 2 − 2 = 0
2 7 6−4=2
13 − 7 = 6
3 13

Now ℎ = 1 , 𝑥0 = 0 To find 𝒇(𝟎. 𝟏) ⇒ 𝑥 = 0.1

𝑥−𝑥
𝑟= ℎ0
0.1−0
𝑟= 1
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟏
By NFIF,
𝑟(𝑟−1) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2) 3
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ⋯
2! 3!
(0.1)(0.1−1) (0.1)(0.1−1)(0.1−2)
𝑦 = 1 + (0.1)(2) + (2) + (0)
2 6
𝑦 = 1.11
Thus, 𝒇(𝟎. 𝟏) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏
2. A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is given by the following table
𝑥 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 0 0.128 0.544 1.296 2.432 4

Find an approximate value of 𝑓(1.1).

Sol: Here ℎ = 0.2 , 𝑥0 = 1 To find 𝒇(𝟏. 𝟏) ⇒ 𝑥 = 1.1
𝑥−𝑥0
𝑟= ℎ
1.1−1
𝑟= 0.2
0.1
𝑟 = 0.2
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟓

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 123

 𝒙 𝒚 𝑰𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑽 𝑫 𝑽𝑫

𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = 0
∆𝑦0 = 0.128
1.2 0.128 ∆2 𝑦0 = 0.288
0.416
1.4 0.544 0.336 ∆3 𝑦0 ∆4 𝑦0 = 0 ∆5 𝑦0 = 0
0.752 = 0.048
1.6 1.296 0.384 0
1.136 0.048
1.8 2.432 0.432
1.568 0.048
2 4

By NFIF,
𝑟(𝑟−1) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2)(𝑟−3)
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + ∆4 𝑦0 +
2! 3! 4!
𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2)(𝑟−3)(𝑟−4) 5
∆ 𝑦0
5!

(0.5)(0.5−1) (0.5)(0.5−1)(0.5−2)
𝑦 = 0 + (0.5)(0.128) + (0.288) + (0.048) + 0 + 0
2 6
𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏0
Thus, 𝒇(𝟏. 𝟏) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏0.

3. Find 𝑢0.5 from the data 𝑢0 = 225, 𝑢1 = 238, 𝑢2 = 320, 𝑢3 = 340.

Sol: ℎ = 1 , 𝑥0 = 0 To find 𝒖𝟎.𝟓 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0.5
𝑥−𝑥0
𝑟= ℎ
𝑟=
0.5−0
𝒙 𝒚 𝑰𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫 1
𝒓=
𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = 225 𝟎. 𝟓
∆𝑦0 = 13
1 238 ∆2 𝑦0 = 69
82 −62 ∆3 𝑦0 = −131
2 320
20
3 340
By NFIF,
𝑟(𝑟−1) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2)
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + ⋯
2! 3!
(0.5)(0.5−1) (0.5)(0.5−1)(0.5−2)
𝑦 = 225 + (0.5)(13) + (69) + (−131)
2 6
𝒚 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟓
Thus, 𝒖𝟎.𝟓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟓

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 124

 4. Find the area of a circle corresponding to diameter (D) is given below
𝑫 80 85 90 95 100

𝐴 5026 5674 6362 7088 7854

Find the area corresponding to the diameter 105 using appropriate interpolation formula.
Sol: Here ℎ = 5 , 𝑥𝑛 = 100 To find 𝒇(𝟏𝟎𝟓) ⇒ 𝑥 = 10.5
𝑥−𝑥𝑛
𝑟= ℎ
105−100
𝑟= 5
𝒓=𝟏

𝒙 𝒚 𝑰𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑽 𝑫

80 5026
648
85 5674 40
688 −2
90 6362 38 𝛻 4 𝑦𝑛 = 4
726 𝛻 3 𝑦𝑛 = 2
95 7088 𝛻 2 𝑦𝑛 = 40
𝛻𝑦𝑛 = 766
𝑥𝑛 =100 𝑦𝑛 =7854
By NBIF,
𝑟(𝑟+1) 𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2) 𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2)(𝑟+3)
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑟𝛻𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 2 𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 3 𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 4 𝑦𝑛
2! 3! 4!
(1)(1 + 1) (1)(1 + 1)(1 + 2)
𝑦 = 7854 + (1)(766) + (40) + (2)
2 6
(1)(1 + 1)(1 + 2)(1 + 3)
+ (4)
24
𝑦 = 8666
Thus, 𝒇(𝟏𝟎𝟓) = 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟔.
The area corresponding to the diameter 105 is 8666.

5. The following table give the values of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 for 0.1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0.3 , find 𝑡𝑎𝑛(0.26).
𝒙 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 0.1003 0.1511 0.2027 0.2553 0.3093

Sol:
Here ℎ = 0.05 , 𝑥𝑛 = 0.3 To find 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝟎. 𝟐𝟔) ⇒ 𝑥 = 0.26
𝑥−𝑥
𝑟= ℎ𝑛

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 125

 0.26−0.3
𝑟=
0.05
𝒓 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
𝒙 𝒚 𝑰𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑽 𝑫
0.1 0.1003
0.0508
0.15 0.1511 0.0008
0.0516 0.0002
0.2 0.2027 0.0010 𝛻 4 𝑦𝑛
0.0526 𝛻 3 𝑦𝑛 = 0.0002
0.25 0.2553 𝛻 2 𝑦𝑛 = 0.0004
𝛻𝑦𝑛 = 0.0014
𝑥𝑛 =0.3 𝑦𝑛 =0.3093 = 0.0540
By NBIF,
𝑟(𝑟+1) 𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2) 𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2)(𝑟+3)
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑟𝛻𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 2 𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 3 𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 4 𝑦𝑛
2! 3! 4!
(−0.8)(−0.8 + 1)
𝑦 = 0.3093 + (−0.8)(0.0540) + (0.0014)
2
(−0.8)(−0.8 + 1)(−0.8 + 2)
+ (0.0004)
6
(−0.8)(−0.8+1)(−0.8+2)(−0.8+3)
+ (0.0002)
24
𝑦 = 0.2660
Thus, 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝟎. 𝟐𝟔) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟎.

6. From the following table find the number of students who have obtain
a) Less than 45 marks
b) Between 40 – 45 marks
c) More than 40 but less than 55
Marks 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

No. of 31 42 51 35 31
students
Sol:
𝒙 𝒚 𝑰𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑽 𝑫

𝒙𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟑𝟏
∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝟒𝟐
50 73 (31+42) ∆ 𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟗
𝟓𝟏 ∆ 𝟑 𝒚𝟎
60 124 (73+51) −𝟏𝟔 = −𝟐𝟓 ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟑𝟕
𝟑𝟓
70 159 (124+35) −𝟒
𝟑𝟏 𝟏𝟐

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 126

 80 190 (159+31)

a) To find 𝒇(𝟒𝟓) ⇒ 𝑥 = 45
Here ℎ = 10 , 𝑥0 = 40
𝑥−𝑥
𝑟= ℎ0
45−40
𝑟= 10
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟓
By NFIF,
𝑟(𝑟−1) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2)(𝑟−3)
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + ∆4 𝑦0
2! 3! 4!

(0.5)(0.5−1) (0.5)(0.5−1)(0.5−2)
𝑦 = 31 + (0.5)(42) + (9) + (−25) +
2 6
(0.5)(0.5−1)(0.5−2)(0.5−3)
(37)
24

𝑦 = 47.8672 ≅ 48
Thus, 𝒇(𝟒𝟓) = 𝟒𝟖.
No. of students who have obtained less than 45 marks is 48.

b)The no. of students between 40 to 45 marks = 𝒇(𝟒𝟓) − 𝒇(𝟒𝟎)

= 𝟒𝟖 − 𝟑𝟏
= 17

c) To find 𝒇(𝟓𝟓) ⇒ 𝑥 = 55
Here ℎ = 10 , 𝑥0 = 40
𝑥−𝑥
𝑟= ℎ0
55−40
𝑟= 10
𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟓
By NFIF,
𝑟(𝑟−1) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2)(𝑟−3)
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + ∆4 𝑦0
2! 3! 4!

(1.5)(1.5 − 1) (1.5)(1.5 − 1)(1.5 − 2)

𝑦 = 31 + (1.5)(42) + (9) + (−25)
2 6
(1.5)(1.5 − 1)(1.5 − 2)(1.5 − 3)
+ (37)
24

𝑦 = 99.8047 ≅ 100

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 127

 Thus, 𝒇(𝟓𝟓) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎.
No. of students who have obtained more than 40 but less than 55 = 𝒇(𝟓𝟓) − 𝒇(𝟒𝟎)
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟏
= 𝟔𝟗
7. The population of a town is given by the following data

Year 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Population 19.96 39.65 58.81 77.18 94.58

( in thousand )
Using appropriate interpolation formula calculate the increase in the population from the year
1975 to 2005.
Sol:

𝒙 𝒚 𝑰𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫 𝑰𝑽 𝑫

𝒙𝟎 =1971 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟔
∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟔𝟗
1981 39.65 ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟓𝟑
𝟏𝟗. 𝟏𝟔 ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟔
1991 58.81 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗 ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
𝟏𝟖. 𝟑𝟕 𝜵𝟑 𝒚𝒏 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 = 𝜵 𝟒 𝒚𝒏
2001 77.18 𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝒏 = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟕
𝜵𝒚𝒏 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟎
𝒙𝒏 =2011 𝒚𝒏 = 𝟗𝟒.58

a) To find 𝒇(𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟓) ⇒ 𝑥 = 1975

Here ℎ = 10 , 𝑥0 = 1971
𝑥−𝑥
𝑟= ℎ0
1975−1971
𝑟= 10
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟒
By NFIF,
𝑟(𝑟−1) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2) 𝑟(𝑟−1)(𝑟−2)(𝑟−3)
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑟∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + ∆4 𝑦0
2! 3! 4!
(0.4)(0.4 − 1) (0.4)(0.4 − 1)(0.4 − 2)
𝑦 = 19.96 + (0.4)(19.69) + (−0.53) + (−0.26)
2 6
(0.4)(0.4 − 1)(0.4 − 2)(0.4 − 3)
+ (0.08)
24
𝑦 = 27.8797
Thus, 𝒇(𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟓) = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟖𝟕𝟗𝟕

To find 𝐟(𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟓) ⇒ 𝑥 = 2005

Here ℎ = 0.05 , 𝑥𝑛 = 2011
𝑥−𝑥
𝑟= ℎ𝑛

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 128

 2005−2011
𝑟=
10
𝒓 = −𝟎. 𝟔
By NBIF,
𝑟(𝑟+1) 𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2) 𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2)(𝑟+3)
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑟𝛻𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 2 𝑦𝑛 +
𝛻 3 𝑦𝑛 + 𝛻 4 𝑦𝑛
2! 3! 4!
(−0.6)(−0.6 + 1)
𝑦 = 94.58 + (−0.6)(17.40) + (−0.97)
2
(−0.6)(−0.6 + 1)(−0.6 + 2)
+ (−0.18)
6
(−0.6)(−0.6 + 1)(−0.6 + 2)(−0.6 + 3)
+ (0.08)
24
𝑦 = 84.2638
Thus, 𝒇(𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟓) = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟖

The increase in population from the year 1975 to 2005= 𝒇(𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟓) − 𝒇(𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟓)
= 𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟖 − 𝟐𝟕. 𝟖𝟕𝟗𝟕
= 𝟓𝟔. 𝟑𝟖𝟒𝟏 ( in thousands )
8. Extrapolate for 25.4 given the data
𝒙 19 20 21 22 23

𝒚 91 100.25 110 120.25 131

9. In a table given below the values of 𝑦 are consecutive terms of a series of which 23.6 is the
6𝑡ℎ term , find the 1𝑠𝑡 and 10𝑡ℎ term of series
𝒙 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

𝒚 4.8 8.4 14.5 23.6 36.2 54.8 73.9

10. Given 𝑠𝑖𝑛(45) = 0.7071, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(50) = 0.7660, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(55) = 0.8192, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(60) = 0.8660,
find 𝑠𝑖𝑛(52) and 𝑠𝑖𝑛(57) using an appropriate interpolation formula.

Interpolation formula for unequal intervals

Newton’s Divided Difference Formula or Newton’s general interpolation formula

If 𝑓(𝑥0 ), 𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 ), …, 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) be a set of values of an unknown function 𝑓(𝑥)
corresponding to the values 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,…, 𝑥𝑛 at unequal intervals, then

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) + ⋯

+(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) … (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛−1 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 )

𝑓(𝑥1 )−𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(𝑥1 ,𝑥2 )−𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑥1 )

Here 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ) = (𝑥1 −𝑥0 )
; 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (𝑥2 −𝑥0 )
;
𝑓(𝑥 ,𝑥 ,𝑥 )−𝑓(𝑥 ,𝑥 ,𝑥 )
𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) = 1 2 (𝑥3 −𝑥 ) 0 1 2
3 0

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 129

 Problems
1. Use NDDF to find 𝑓(43) , given that
𝑥 40 42 44 45

𝑓(𝑥) 43833 46568 49431 50912

Sol:
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫𝑫

𝒙𝟎 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
= 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟒𝟑𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒙𝟏 )
𝟒𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟖 − 𝟒𝟑𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒙𝟏, 𝒙𝟐 )
=
𝟒𝟐 − 𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 − 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟕. 𝟓 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒙𝟏, 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 )
𝒙𝟏 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟕. 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟓 − 𝟏𝟔
𝟒𝟒 − 𝟒𝟎
= 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟒𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟖 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟏𝟔 = = 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟒𝟓 − 𝟒𝟎
𝟒𝟗𝟒𝟑𝟏 − 𝟒𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟖
=
𝟒𝟒 − 𝟒𝟐 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 )
𝒙𝟐 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟏 − 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟏. 𝟓
𝒇(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 ) = = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟓
= 𝟒𝟒 = 𝟒𝟗𝟒𝟑𝟏 𝟒𝟓 − 𝟒𝟐
𝟓𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟐 − 𝟒𝟗𝟒𝟑𝟏
=
𝟒𝟓 − 𝟒𝟒
𝒙𝟑 𝒇(𝒙𝟑 ) = 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟏
= 𝟒𝟓 = 𝟓𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟐

By NDDF,
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 −
𝑥2 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )

𝑦 = 43833 + (43 − 40)(1367.5) + (43 − 40)(43 − 42)(16) + (43 − 40)(43 −

42)(43 − 44)(0.1)

𝒚 = 𝟒𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟑. 𝟐

Thus, 𝒇(𝟒𝟑) = 𝟒𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟑. 𝟐

2. Find 𝑓(0.05) using NDDF given that

𝒙 0 2 3 5 6

𝒇(𝒙) 0 6 21 105 186

Sol:

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 130

 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑽 𝑫𝑫

𝑥0 = 0 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 0

𝑥1 = 2 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 6 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
=3 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1, 𝑥2 )
𝑥2 = 3 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 21 =4
𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )
𝑥3 = 5 𝑓(𝑥3 ) = 105 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) =1
= 15 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )
𝑥4 = 6 𝑓(𝑥4 ) = 186 =9 =0
𝑓(𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )
𝑓(𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) =1
= 42 𝑓(𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )
= 13

𝑓(𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )
= 81

By NDDF,
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 )
+ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )
+ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )

𝑦 = 0 + (0.5 − 0)(3) + (0.5 − 0)(0.5 − 2)(4) + (0.5 − 0)(0.5 − 2)(0.5 − 3)(1) + (0)
𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓𝟎

Thus, 𝒇(𝟎. 𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓𝟎

3. Fit an interpolating polynomial for the data by NDDF

𝑥 0 1 2 5

𝑓(𝑥) 2 3 12 147

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 131

 Sol:
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫𝑫

𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝟒
𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝟐𝟔
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟒 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝟓𝟔 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒙𝟏, 𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟏𝟓
𝒇(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟏𝟑𝟏
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟗 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟕𝟏𝟏 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 ) = 𝟐𝟑 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒙𝟏, 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 ) = 𝟏
𝒇(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 ) = 𝟐𝟔𝟗
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒇(𝒙𝟑 ) = 𝟗𝟖𝟎

By NDDF,
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 )
+ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )
𝑦 = 4 + − 2)(26) + − 2)(𝑥 − 4)(15) + (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 9)(1)
(𝑥 (𝑥
𝑦 = 4 + 26𝑥 − 52 + 15(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 8) + (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 8)(𝑥 − 9)
𝑦 = 4 + 26𝑥 − 52 + 15(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8) + (𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8)(𝑥 − 9)
𝑦 = 4 + 26𝑥 − 52 + 15𝑥 2 − 90𝑥 + 120 + 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 9𝑥 2 + 54𝑥 − 72
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥, is the required polynomial.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
When 𝑥 = 3 , 𝑓(3) = 21
𝑥=5, 𝑓(5) = 115
𝑥=7, 𝑓(7) = 329
𝑥 = 11 , 𝑓(11) = 1309

Consider,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)3 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3 + 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 1)2 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
3 2
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1) + 3[(𝑥 − 1) + 2𝑥 − 1] − 5𝑥 + 1
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3 + 3(𝑥 − 1)2 + 6𝑥 − 3 − 5𝑥 + 1
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3 + 3(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑥 − 2
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3 + 3(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑥 − 1 − 1
𝒇(𝒙) = (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 + 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 + (𝒙 − 𝟏) − 𝟏
When
𝑥 = 1.1 , 𝑓(𝑥) = (1.1 − 1)3 + 3(1.1 − 1)2 + (1.1 − 1) − 1 = −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟎
𝑥 = 1.5 , 𝑓(𝑥) = (1.5 − 1)3 + 3(1.5 − 1)2 + (1.5 − 1) − 1 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓

5. Determine 𝑓(𝑥) as a polynomial in 𝑥 for the following data using NDDF

𝑥 -4 -1 0 2 5

𝑓(𝑥) 1245 33 5 9 1335

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 132

 Sol:
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑫𝑫 𝑰𝑽 𝑫𝑫
𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥0 )
= −4 = 1245 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
= −404 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1, 𝑥2 )
𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 33 = 94 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )
= −1 = −14 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )
𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 5 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) =3
𝑥2 = 0 = −28 = 10 𝑓(𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )
𝑓(𝑥3 ) = 9 = 13
𝑥3 = 2 𝑓(𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )
𝑓(𝑥4 ) 𝑓(𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) = 88
𝑥4 = 5 = 1335 =2

𝑓(𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )
= 442

By NDDF,
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 −
𝑥2 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )
+(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 )

𝑦 = 1245 + (𝑥 + 4)(−404) + (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 1)(94) + (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 0)(-14)+

(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 2)(3)

𝑦 = 1245 − 404𝑥 − 1616 + 94(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4) − 14𝑥(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4) + 3𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 +

5𝑥 + 4)

𝑦 = 1245 − 404𝑥 − 1616 + 94𝑥 2 + 470𝑥 + 376 − 14𝑥 2 − 70𝑥 2 − 56𝑥 +

(3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4)

𝑦 = 1245 − 404𝑥 − 1616 + 94𝑥 2 + 470𝑥 + 376 − 14𝑥 2 − 70𝑥 2 − 56𝑥 + 3𝑥 4 + 15𝑥 3 +
12𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 3 − 30𝑥 2 − 24𝑥

𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟓𝒙𝟑 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓 , is the required polynomial.

6. Construct a polynomial for the data given below using NDDF and hence find
𝑓(8) and 𝑓(15).

𝑥 4 5 7 10 11 13

𝑓(𝑥) 48 100 294 900 1210 2028

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 133

 7. Using NDDF find 𝑢8 if
𝑥 1 2 4 7 12

𝑓(𝑥) 576 168 -30 48 378

Lagrange’s formula for interpolation

If 𝑓(𝑥0 ), 𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 ), …, 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) be a set of values of an unknown function 𝑓(𝑥)
corresponding to the values 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,…, 𝑥𝑛 not necessarily at equal intervals, then
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) … (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) … (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦 +⋯
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 ) … (𝑥0 − 𝑥𝑛 ) (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) … (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑛 ) 1

(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) … (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛−1 )
+ 𝑦
(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥2 ) … (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛−1 ) 𝑛

Lagrange’s inverse interpolation formula for 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒚) is

(𝑦 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦 − 𝑦2 ) … (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑛 ) (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )(𝑦 − 𝑦2 ) … (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑛 )
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑥0 + 𝑥 +⋯
(𝑦0 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦0 − 𝑦2 ) … (𝑦0 − 𝑦𝑛 ) (𝑦1 − 𝑦0 )(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) … (𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑛 ) 1

(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) … (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑛−1 )
+ 𝑥
(𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦0 )(𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦2 ) … (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛−1 ) 𝑛

Problems
1. Apply Lagrange’s interpolation formula to find 𝑦(11) from the following data
𝑥 2 5 8 14

𝑦 94.8 87.9 81.3 68.7

Sol: Given 𝑥0 = 2 𝑥1 = 5 𝑥2 = 8 𝑥3 = 14
𝑦0 = 94.8 𝑦1 = 87.9 𝑦2 = 81.3 𝑦3 = 68.7
To find 𝒚(𝟏𝟏) ⇒ 𝑥 = 11
Wkt
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )
𝑦= 𝑦0 + 𝑦
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
+ 𝑦2 + 𝑦
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥3 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) 3

(11 − 5)(11 − 8)(11 − 14) (11 − 2)(11 − 8)(11 − 14)

𝑦= (94.8) + (87.9)
(2 − 5)(2 − 8)(2 − 14) (5 − 2)(5 − 8)(5 − 14)
(11 − 2)(11 − 5)(11 − 14) (11 − 2)(11 − 5)(11 − 8)
+ (81.3) + (68.7)
(8 − 2)(8 − 5)(8 − 14) (14 − 2)(14 − 5)(14 − 8)
𝑦 = 74.925
𝒚(𝟏𝟏) = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟗𝟐𝟓

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 134

 2. Fit an interpolating polynomial for the following data

𝑥 0 1 2 5

𝑦 2 3 12 147

Sol: Given 𝑥0 = 0 𝑥1 = 1 𝑥2 = 2 𝑥3 = 5
𝑦0 = 2 𝑦1 = 3 𝑦2 = 12 𝑦3 = 147
Wkt
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )
𝑦= 𝑦0 + 𝑦
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
+ 𝑦2 + 𝑦
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥3 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) 3

(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−5) (𝑥−0)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−5) (𝑥−0)(𝑥−1)(𝑥−5) (𝑥−0)(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)

𝑦= (2) + (1−0)(1−2)(1−5) (3) + (2−0)(2−1)(2−5) (12) + (5−0)(5−1)(5−2) (147)
(0−1)(0−2)(0−5)

Wkt (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) = 𝑥 3 − (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑥 2 + (𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎)𝑥 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐

(𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 − 10) (𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 10𝑥) (𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥)

𝑦= (2) + (3) + (12)
(−10) (4) (−6)
(𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)
+ (147)
(60)

−(𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 − 10) (3𝑥 3 − 21𝑥 2 + 30𝑥) (2𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 10𝑥)

𝑦= + −
5 4 1
(147𝑥 3 − 441𝑥 2 + 294𝑥)
+
60

𝑦
−12(𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 − 10) + 15(3𝑥 3 − 21𝑥 2 + 30𝑥) − 60(2𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 10𝑥) + (147𝑥 3 − 441𝑥 2 +
=
60

𝑦
−12𝑥 3 + 96𝑥 2 − 204𝑥 + 120 + 45𝑥 3 − 315𝑥 2 + 450𝑥 − 120𝑥 3 + 720𝑥 2 − 600𝑥 + 147𝑥 3 − 441𝑥 2 +
=
60

60𝑥 3 +60𝑥 2 −60𝑥+120

𝑦= 60

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟐 , is the required polynomial.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 135

 3. Use Lagrange’s interpolation formula to fit a polynomial for the data and
hence find 𝑦 at 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥 0 1 3 4

𝑦 -12 0 6 12

Sol: Given 𝑥0 = 0 𝑥1 = 1 𝑥2 = 3 𝑥3 = 4
𝑦0 = −12 𝑦1 = 0 𝑦2 = 6 𝑦3 = 12

Wkt
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )
𝑦= 𝑦0 + 𝑦
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
+ 𝑦2 + 𝑦
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥3 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) 3

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4)

𝑦= (−12) + (0)
(0 − 1)(0 − 3)(0 − 4) (1 − 0)(1 − 3)(1 − 4)
(𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)
+ (6)
(3 − 0)(3 − 1)(3 − 4)
(𝑥 − 0)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)
+ (12)
(4 − 0)(4 − 1)(4 − 3)

(𝑥 3 −8𝑥 2 +19𝑥−12) (𝑥 3 −5𝑥 2 +4𝑥) (𝑥 3 −4𝑥 2 +3𝑥)

𝑦= (−12) + (6) + (12)
(−12) (−6) (12)

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 − 12 − 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟕𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐, is the required polynomial.

Put 𝑥 = 2
𝑦 = 23 − 7(2)2 + 18(2) − 12
𝒚=𝟒

4. Use Lagrange’s interpolation formula to fit a polynomial for the data 𝑦(1) = 3,
𝑦(3) = 9, 𝑦(4) = 30, 𝑦(6) = 132.
Sol: Given 𝑥0 = 1 𝑥1 = 3 𝑥2 = 4 𝑥3 = 6
𝑦0 = 3 𝑦1 = 9 𝑦2 = 30 𝑦3 = 132
Wkt
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )
𝑦= 𝑦0 + 𝑦
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
+ 𝑦2 + 𝑦
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 ) (𝑥3 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) 3

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 136

 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6)
𝑦= (3) + (9)
(1 − 3)(1 − 4)(1 − 6) (3 − 1)(3 − 4)(3 − 6)
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 6)
+ (30)
(4 − 1)(4 − 3)(4 − 6)
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−3)(𝑥−4)
+ (6−1)(6−3)(6−4) (132)

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6) 3(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 6) 5(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 6)

𝑦= + +
(−10) (2) (−1)
22(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4)
+
(5)

−(𝑥 3 − 13𝑥 2 + 54𝑥 − 72) + 15(𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 34𝑥 − 24) − 50(𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 − 18) + 44(𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 − 12)
𝑦=
10

−𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 2 − 54𝑥 + 72 + 15𝑥 3 − 165𝑥 2 + 510𝑥 − 360 − 50𝑥 3 + 500𝑥 2 − 1350𝑥 + 900 + 44𝑥 3 − 352𝑥 2 + 836𝑥 − 528
𝑦=
10

8𝑥 3 −4𝑥 2 −58𝑥+84
𝑦= 10

2(4𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 −29𝑥+42)

𝑦= 10

(𝟒𝒙𝟑 −𝟐𝒙𝟐 −𝟐𝟗𝒙+𝟒𝟐)

𝒚= , is the required polynomial.
𝟓

5. Use Lagrange’s interpolation formula to find 𝑦 at 𝑥 = 5 for the data 𝑦(1) = 3,

𝑦(3) = 18, 𝑦(4) = 30, 𝑦(6) = 132.

Numerical Integration
𝑏
The process of obtaining approximate value of the definite integration 𝐼 = ∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
without actually integrating function but only using the value of ′𝑦′ at some point of 𝑥 is
equally placed over [𝑎, 𝑏].
𝟏𝒓𝒅
Simpson’s 𝟑 rule
Formula:
𝑏
ℎ
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + 𝑦5 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−1 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑦6 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−2 )]
3 0
𝑎
𝑏−𝑎
Where, ℎ = 𝑛
1𝑟𝑑
Note: To apply 3 rule 𝑛 must be multiple of 2.

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 137

 Problems
6
1. Evaluate ∫0 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 dividing the interval [0,6] in 6 equal parts (7 ordinate) by
applying
1𝑟𝑑
Simpson’s rule.
3
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 6 , y = 3𝑥 2
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = 𝑛
6−0
ℎ= 6
𝒉=𝟏,𝑛=6

𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

y = 3𝑥 2 0 3 12 27 48 75 108

Wkt,
𝑏 ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 )]

6 1
∫0 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(0 + 108) + 4(3 + 27 + 75) + 2(12 + 48)]

𝟔
∫𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔.

1 𝑑𝑥 1𝑟𝑑
2. Evaluate ∫0 1+𝑥 2 using Simpson’s 3 rule by taking 5 ordinates (4 equal parts) and
hence deduce an approximate value of 𝜋.
1
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 1 , y = 1+𝑥 2
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = 𝑛
1−0
ℎ= 4
𝟏
𝒉= , 𝑛=4
𝟒

𝑥 0 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 1
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
1 1 0.9412 0.8 0.64 0.5
y=
1 + 𝑥2

Wkt,
𝑏 ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦0 + 𝑦4 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 ) + 2(𝑦2 )]

1
1 1 4
∫0 𝑑𝑥 = [(1 + 0.5) + 4(0.9412 + 0.64) + 2(0.8)]
1+𝑥 2 3

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 138

 𝟏 𝟏
∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟒
𝟏+𝒙𝟐

By integration,

1 1
∫0 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥]10
1+𝑥 2
0.7854 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0
𝜋
0.7854 = 4
𝝅 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟔

𝜋⁄ 1𝑟𝑑 𝜋
2
3. Find the approximate value of ∫0 √𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 by Simpson’s 3
rule by dividing [0, 2 ]
into 6 equal parts.
𝜋
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 2 , y = √𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = 𝑛
𝜋
−0
2
ℎ= 6
;
𝜋
𝒉 = 12 = 15° ,
𝑛=6

𝜃 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°

y 1 0.9828 0.9306 0.8409 0.7071 0.5087 0

= √𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Wkt,
𝑏 ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 )]

𝜋 𝜋
12
∫0 √𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃 =
2 [(1 + 0) + 4(0.9828 + 0.8409 + 0.5087) + 2(0.9306 + 0.7071)]
3

𝝅
∫𝟎𝟐 √𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒅𝜽 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟑

0.6 2 1𝑟𝑑
4. Evaluate ∫0 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 using Simpson’s rule by dividing [0,0.6] in 6 subintervals.
3
−𝑥 2
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 0.6 , y = 𝑒
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = 𝑛
0.6−0
ℎ= 6
𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟏 , 𝑛 = 6

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 139

 𝒙 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
2
y = 𝑒 −𝑥 1 0.99 0.9608 0.9139 0.8521 0.7788 0.6977

Wkt,
𝑏 ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 )]

0.6 2 0.1
∫0 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3
[(1 + 0.6977) + 4(0.99 + 0.9139 + 0.7788) + 2(0.9608 + 0.8521)]

𝟎.𝟔 𝟐
∫𝟎 𝒆−𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟓𝟏

1 𝑑𝑥 1𝑟𝑑
5. Evaluate ∫0 (1+𝑥)2
using Simpson’s rule by taking 7 ordinates.
3
1
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 1 , y = (1+𝑥)2
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = 𝑛
1−0
ℎ= 6
𝟏
𝒉=𝟔 , 𝑛=6

𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5 1
6 6 6 6 6
𝑦 1 0.7347 0.5625 0.4444 0.3600 0.2975 0.2500
1
=
(1 + 𝑥)2
Wkt,
𝑏 ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 )]

1
1 1 6
∫0 (1+𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = [(1 + 0.25) + 4(0.7347 + 0.4444 + 0.2975) + 2(0.5625 + 0.36)]
3

𝟏 𝟏
∫𝟎 (𝟏+𝒙)𝟐
𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟏

1 𝑥 1𝑟𝑑
6. Evaluate ∫0 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 using Simpson’s rule by taking 6 equal parts and hence find
3
log2.
𝑥
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 1 , y = 1+𝑥 2
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = 𝑛
1−0
ℎ= 6
𝟏
𝒉=𝟔 , 𝑛=6

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 140

 𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5 1
6 6 6 6 6
𝑦 0 0.1622 0.3000 0.4000 0.4615 0.4918 0.5000
𝑥
=
1 + 𝑥2
Wkt,
𝑏 ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 )]

1
1 𝑥 6
∫0 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = [(0 + 0.5) + 4(0.1622 + 0.4 + 0.4918) + 2(0.3 + 0.4615)]
3

𝟏 𝒙
∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟔
𝟏+𝒙𝟐

By integration,

1 𝑥 1 1 2𝑥
∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2

1
0.3466 = 2 [𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑥 2 )]10

1
0.3466 = 2 [𝑙𝑜𝑔2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔1]
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 = 2 ∗ 0.3466

𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟐

𝜋 𝑑𝑥
7. Evaluate ∫0 by taking 6 sub intervals.
2+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
1
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 𝜋 , y = 2+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = 𝑛
𝜋−0
ℎ= 6
𝜋
𝒉 = 𝟔 = 𝟑𝟎° , 𝑛 = 6
𝑥 𝟎° 𝟑𝟎° 𝟔𝟎° 𝟗𝟎° 𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝟏𝟓𝟎° 18𝟎°
1 0.3333 0.3489 0.4000 0.5000 0.6667 0.8819 1
2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

Wkt,
𝑏 ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 )]

𝜋
𝜋 1 𝟔
∫0 2+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [(0.3333 + 1) + 4(0.3489 + 0.5 + 0.8819) + 2(0.4 + 0.6667)]
3

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 141

 𝝅 𝟏
∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝟑𝟒
𝟐+𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙

8 1
8. Evaluate ∫2 𝑑𝑥 by taking 6 sub intervals.
log10 𝑥
1
Sol: Given a = 2 , b = 8 , y = log
10 𝑥
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = 𝑛
8−2
ℎ= 6
𝒉 = 𝟏, 𝑛 = 6
𝒙 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 3.3219 2.0959 1.6610 1.4307 1.2851 1.1833 1.1073
𝑦=
log10 𝑥

Wkt,
𝑏 ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 )]

8 1 1
∫2 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(3.3219 + 1.1073) + 4(2.0959 + 1.4307 + 1.1833) + 2(1.661 +
log10 𝑥
1.2851)]

𝟖 1
∫𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟑
log10 𝑥
𝟑𝒕𝒉
Simpson’s rule
𝟖
Formula:
𝑏
3ℎ
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−1 ) + 2(𝑦3 + 𝑦6 + 𝑦9 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−3 )]
8
𝑎
𝑏−𝑎
Where, ℎ = 𝑛
3𝑡ℎ
Note: To apply 8 rule 𝑛 must be multiple of 3.

Problems
1 1 3𝑡ℎ
1. Evaluate ∫0 (1+𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 by taking 7 ordinate using Simpson’s 8 rule. Hence deduce
the value of log2.
1
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 1 , y = (1+𝑥)
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = ,𝑛=6
𝑛
1−0
ℎ= 6
𝟏
𝒉=𝟔

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 142

 𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5 1
6 6 6 6 6
1 1 0.8571 0.75 0.6667 0.6 0.5455 0.5
y=
(1 + 𝑥)
Wkt,
𝑏 3ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦3 )]
8

1
1 1 3∗
𝟔
∫0 (1+𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [(1 + 0.5) + 3(0.8571 + 0.75 + 0.6 + 0.5455) + 2(0.6667)]
8

𝟏 𝟏
∫𝟎 (𝟏+𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟐

By integration,

1 1
∫0 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑥)]10
1+𝑥
0.6932 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔1]
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟐

3𝑡ℎ 4 1⁄
2. Use Simpson’s 8 rule to evaluate ∫1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 by taking 3 equal parts.
1
Sol: Given a = 1 , b = 4 , y = 𝑒 ⁄𝑥
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = ,𝑛=3
𝑛
4−1
ℎ= 3
𝒉=𝟏
𝒙 1 2 3 4

1⁄ 2.7183 1.6487 1.3956 1.2840

y=𝑒 𝑥

Wkt,
𝑏 3ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦3 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )]
8

4 1⁄ 3∗1
∫1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [(2.7183 + 1.2840 ) + 3(1.6487 + 1.3956 )]
8

𝟒 𝟏⁄
∫𝟏 𝒆 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟐𝟓𝟕

5.2 3𝑡ℎ
3. Evaluate ∫4 log 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 using Simpson’s 8 rule by taking 6 equal parts.
Sol: Given a = 4 , b = 5.2 , y = log 𝑒 𝑥
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = ,𝑛=6
𝑛

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 143

 5.2−4
ℎ=
6
𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟐
𝒙 4 4.2 4.4. 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2

y = log 𝑒 𝑥 1.3863 1.4351 1.4816 1.5261 1.5686 1.6094 1.6487

Wkt,
𝑏 3ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦3 )]
8

5.2 3∗(0.2)
∫4 log 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [(1.3863 + 1.6487) + 3(1.4351 + 1.4816 + 1.5686 + 1.6094) +
8
2(1.5261)]

𝟓.𝟐
∫𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟖

0.3 3⁄ 3𝑡ℎ
4. Evaluate ∫0 (1 − 8𝑥 2 ) 2 𝑑𝑥 using Simpson’s 8 rule by taking 7 ordinates.
3⁄
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 0.3 , y = (1 − 8𝑥 2 ) 2
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = ,𝑛=6
𝑛
0.3−0
ℎ= 6
𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓

𝑥 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

y 1 0.9702 0.8824 0.7425 0.5607 0.3536 0.1482

3
= (1 − 8𝑥 2 ) ⁄2
Wkt,
𝑏 3ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦3 )]
8

0.3 3⁄ 3∗(0.05)
∫0 (1 − 8𝑥 2 ) 2 𝑑𝑥 = 8
[(1 + 0.1482) + 3(0.9702 + 0.8824 + 0.5607 + 0.3536) +
2(0.7425)]

𝟎.𝟑 𝟑⁄
∫𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝟖𝒙𝟐 ) 𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟎

1 𝑥2 3𝑡ℎ
5. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝑥 using Simpson’s 8 rule by taking 7 ordinates and hence find
1+𝑥 3
log2.
𝑥2
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 1 , y = 1+𝑥 3

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 144

 𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = ,𝑛=6
𝑛
1−0
ℎ= 6
𝟏
𝒉=𝟔

𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5 1
6 6 6 6 6
𝑥2 0 0.0276 0.1071 0.2222 0.3429 0.4399 0.5
y=
1 + 𝑥3
Wkt,
𝑏 3ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦3 )]
8

1 1
𝑥2 3∗𝟔
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [(0 + 0.5) + 3(0.0267 + 0.1071 + 0.3429 + 0.4399) + 2(0.2222)]
1 + 𝑥3 8
0

𝟏 𝒙𝟐
∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟏
𝟏+𝒙𝟑

By integration,

1 𝑥2 1 1 3𝑥 2
∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫0 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 3 1+𝑥 3

1
0.2311 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑥 3 )]10
3
1
0.2311 = 3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔1]
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 = 3 ∗ 0.2311
⇒ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟑

6 𝑑𝑥 3𝑡ℎ
6. Evaluate ∫0 using Simpson’s rule by taking 7 ordinates.
1+𝑥 2 8
1
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 6 , y = 1+𝑥 2
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = ,𝑛=6
𝑛
6−0
ℎ= 6
𝒉=𝟏

𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

y 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.0588 0.0385 0.0270

1
=
1 + 𝑥2

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 145

 Wkt,
𝑏 3ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦6 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑦5 ) + 2(𝑦3 )]
8

6 1 3∗1
∫0 𝑑𝑥 = [(1 + 0.5) + 3(0.5 + 0.2 + 0.0588 + 0.0385) + 2(0.1)]
1+𝑥 2 8

𝟔 𝟏
∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟕𝟏
𝟏+𝒙𝟐

1 𝑥 3𝑡ℎ
7. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝑥 using Simpson’s 8 rule by taking 3 equal parts and hence find
1+𝑥 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔√2.
𝑥
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 1 , y = 1+𝑥 2
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = ,𝑛=3
𝑛
1−0
ℎ= 3
𝟏
𝒉=𝟑

𝑥 0 𝟏 𝟐 1
𝟑 𝟑
𝑥 0 0.3 0.4615 0.5
y=
1 + 𝑥2

Wkt,
𝑏 3ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦3 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )]
8

1
1 𝑥 3∗
3
∫0 𝑑𝑥 = [(0 + 0.5) + 3(0.3 + 0.4615)]
1+𝑥 2 8

𝟏 𝒙
∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟖𝟏
𝟏+𝒙𝟐

By integration,
1 𝑥 1 1 2𝑥
∫0 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

1
0.3481 = 2 [𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑥 2 )]10

1
0.3481 = 2 [𝑙𝑜𝑔2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔1]

1
2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 = 0.3481

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 146

 𝒍𝒐𝒈√𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟖𝟏
𝜋
3𝑡ℎ
8. Evaluate ∫0 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 using Simpson’s 8
2 rule by taking 3 equal parts.
𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Sol: Given a = 0 , b = 2 , y = 𝑒
𝑏−𝑎
Now, ℎ = ,𝑛=3
𝑛
𝜋
−0
2
ℎ= 3
𝜋
𝒉= = 30°
6

𝒙 0° 30° 60° 90°

y = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 1.6487 2.3774 2.7183

Wkt,
𝑏 3ℎ
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦0 + 𝑦3 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )]
8

𝜋 𝜋
3∗
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 6
[(1 + 2.7183) + 3(1.6487 + 2.3774)]
∫0 𝑒
2 𝑑𝑥 = 8

𝝅
∫𝟎𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟏

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 MODULE-5
NUMERICAL METHODS-2
Introduction
A numerical method can be used to get an accurate approximate solution to a
differential equation. There are many programs and packages available for solving these
differential equations. With today's computer, an accurate solution can be obtained rapidly. In
this chapter we focus on basic numerical methods for solving initial value problems.

Analytical methods, when available, generally enable to find the value of y for all
values of x. Numerical methods, on the other hand, lead to the values of y
corresponding only to some finite set of values of x. That is the solution is obtained as a table
of values, rather than as continuous function. Moreover, analytical solution, if it can be found,
is exact, whereas a numerical solution inevitably involves an error which should be small but
may, if it is not controlled, swamp the true solution. Therefore we must be concerned with
two aspects of numerical solutions of ODEs: both the method itself and its accuracy.
The most general form of an ODE of first order and first degree is given by
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0
𝑑𝑥
Let x by an independent variable and y be dependent variable.
𝑑𝑦
Let us consider the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 ----(1)
If particular values are given to the constants, then the resulting solution is called a
particular solution.
To obtain a particular solution from the general solution (1), we must be given
initial conditions so that the constants can be determined. If all the initial conditions
are specified at the same value of x then the problem is termed as initial value
problem. If the conditions are specified at more than one value of x, then the problem
is termed as boundary value problem.
Though there are many analytical methods for finding the solution of the
equation of the form (1), there exist large number of ODE’s whose solution cannot be
obtained by the known analytical methods. In such cases, we use numerical methods
to get an approximate solution of a given differential equation under the prescribed
conditions
𝑑𝑦
Consider the first order differential equation = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥

Let y(x0), y(x1), y(x2), y(x3)....y(xm) be the solution values at the points x0, x1, x2, x3,-- xm
We wish to find the approximate values y0 , y1, ........, ym to these solution values.
Let the initial condition be y(x0 ) = y0 . Let the exact solution y(x) of the given
differential equation be represented by a continuous curve. Divide the interval
(Xo,Xm))on which the solution is derived into a finite number of equispaced
subintervals.

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 Approximate solution

Exact solution

For each xi, the approximate values of the dependent variable y(x) are calculated using
a suitable recursive formula. These values are y0, y1, ......, ym and these are shown by
points. Computation of these approximate values is known as Numerical solution of the
Differential equation.

The following methods are used to solve the IVP (1).

1. Taylor’s Series Method

2. Modified Euler’s Method
3. Runge - Kutta Method
4. Milne’s Method

1. Taylor’s Series Method

Let y=f(x) be a solution of the equation
Expanding it by Taylor’s series about x - x0 we get
(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ) ′ (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝟐 ′′ (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝟑 ′′′
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚 (𝒙𝟎 ) + 𝒚 (𝒙𝟎 ) + 𝒚 (𝒙𝟎 ) + ⋯.
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
1.Compute y at x=1.1 and 1.2 using Taylor’s series method to correct to 4 decimal places for

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 + 𝑦 , 𝑦(0) = 0
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑦1 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦1 (0) = 1
Differentiate with respect to x we get

𝑦2 = 1 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 (0) = 2
𝑦3 = 𝑦2 𝑦3 (0) = 2

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 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦1 (0) + 𝑦2 (0) + 𝑦3 (0) + ⋯.
1! 2! 3!

ℎ ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ4
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑦0 + 1! 𝑦01 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3+ 𝑦0 4 + ⋯.---------- (2)
2! 0 3! 0 4!

From the Taylor’s series, we have h= 𝑥 − 𝑥0 =1.1-1=0.1

Substituting all these values in Equation (2) we get
0.1 0.12 0.13
𝑦1 = 𝑓(1.1) = 0 + (1) + 2+ (2) + ⋯..
1! 2! 3!

𝑦1 = 0.1103

∴ y1 =y(1.1) = 0.1103
ℎ ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ4
𝑦2 = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 𝑦1 + 1! 𝑦11 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3+ 𝑦1 4 + ⋯.-
2! 1 3! 1 4!

𝑦11 1=x1 + y1 y1(1.1)= 1.1+ 0.1103 + 1.2103

Differentiate with respect to x we get

𝑦11 1=1 + 𝑦11 y11(1.1)= 1+ 1.2103 + 2.2103

Y111= Y11 y111(0)=2.2103

0.1 0.12 0.13
𝑦2 = 𝑓(1.2) = 0.1103 + 1.2103 + 2.2103 + 2.2103 + ⋯ =0.2427
1! 2! 3!

Example-2:
Using the Taylor’s series method , find an approximate solution correct to four decimals at
𝑑𝑦
x=0.1 for the IVP = 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑦(0) = 1
𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑦1 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 𝑦1 (0) = 0 − 12 = −1
Differentiating w.r.t ‘x’ we get
𝑦2 = 1 − 2𝑦𝑦1 𝑦2 (0) = 1 − 2(1)(−1) = 3
𝑦3 = −(2𝑦𝑦2 + 2𝑦12 ) 𝑦3 (0) = −(2(1)(3) + 2(−1)2 ) = −8
𝑦4 = −2(𝑦𝑦3 + 3𝑦1 𝑦2 ) 𝑦4 (0) = −2(1(−8) + 3(−1)(3)) = 34

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 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 2 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )3 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + ⋯.
1! 2! 3!
Where x=0.1 and 𝑥0 = 0 we get
0.1 0.12 0.13 0.14
𝑦1 = 𝑓(0.1) = 1 + (−1) + (−3) + (−8) + (34) …..
1! 2! 3! 4!

𝑦 (0.1)=0.91379
Example-3:
Using the Taylor’s series method , find an approximate solution correct to four decimals at
𝑑𝑦
x=0.1 for the IVP 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 1, 𝑦(0) = 1

Solution:
𝑦1 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 1 𝑦1 (0) = 0 − 1 = −1
Differentiating w.r.to.x we get
𝑦2 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑦1 𝑦2 (0) = 2 ∗ 0 ∗ 1 + 0 = 0
𝑦3 = 2𝑥𝑦1 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦2
add the same term we get
𝑦3 = 4𝑥𝑦1 + 2𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑦2 𝑦3 (0) = 4 ∗ 0 ∗ −1 + 2 ∗ 1 + 0 = 2
𝑦4 = 4𝑥𝑦2 + 4𝑦1 + 2𝑦1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦3 + 2𝑥𝑦2
𝑦4 = 6𝑥𝑦2 + 6𝑦1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦3 𝑦4 (0) = 0 + 6(−1) + 0 = −6
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 2 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )3 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + ⋯.
1! 2! 3!
Where x=0.1 and 𝑥0 = 0 we get
0.1 0.12 0.13 0.14
𝑦1 = 𝑓(0.1) = 1 + (−1) + (0) + (2) + (−6) + ⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!

𝑦(0.1)=0.9003
Example-4:
Using the Taylor’s series method , find an approximate solution correct to four decimals at
𝑑𝑦
x=0.1 for the IVP 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 3𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑦(0) = 0

Solution:
𝑦1 = 2𝑦 + 3𝑒 𝑥 𝑦1 (0) = 0 + 3𝑒 0 = 3
Differentiating w.r.t x we get
𝑦2 = 2𝑦1 + 3𝑒 𝑥 𝑦2 (0) = 2 ∗ 3 + 3𝑒 0 = 9

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 𝑦3 = 2𝑦2 + 3𝑒 𝑥 𝑦3 (0) = 2 ∗ 9 + 3𝑒 0 = 21
𝑦4 = 2𝑦3 + 3𝑒 𝑥 𝑦4 (0) = 2 ∗ 21 + 3𝑒 0 = 45

(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 2 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )3 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + ⋯.
1! 2! 3!
Where x=0.1 and 𝑥0 = 0 we get
0.1 0.12 0.13 0.14
𝑦1 = 𝑓(0.1) = 0 + (3) + (9) + (21) + (45) + ⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!
𝑦(0.1)=0.3487
Example-5:
𝑑𝑦
Using the Taylor’s series method , solve 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 in the range 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0.2 by taking step
size h=0.1 given that y=10 at x=0 initially considering terms upto the fourth degree.
Sol: in this problem ,since step size is specified as 0.1 , the problem has to be done in two
stage .
Stage 1: By data 𝑦1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 , 𝑦(0) = 10
𝑦1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 𝑦1 (0) = 0 + 10 = 10
Differentiating w.r.to.x we get
𝑦2 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 (0) = 2(0) + 10 = 10
𝑦3 = 2 + 𝑦2 𝑦3 (0) = 2 + 10 = 12
𝑦4 = 𝑦3 𝑦4 (0) = 12
(𝑥−𝑥0 ) (𝑥−𝑥0 )2 (𝑥−𝑥0 )3
We have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑦01 + 𝑦0 2 + 𝑦0 3 + ⋯.
1! 2! 3!

Where x=0.1 and 𝑥0 = 0 we get

0.1 0.12 0.13 0.14
𝑦1 = 𝑓(0.1) = 10 + (10) + (10) + (12) + (12) + ⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!
y(0.1)=11.052
Stage 2: Now taking 𝑥0 = 0 .1 𝑦0 = 11.052
We have
𝑦1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 𝑦1 (0.1) = (0.1)2 + 11.052 = 11.062
𝑦2 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 (0.1) = 2(0.1) + 11.062 = 11.262

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 𝑦3 = 2 + 𝑦2 𝑦3 (0.1) = 2 + 11.262 = 13.262
𝑦4 = 𝑦3 𝑦4 (0.1) = 13.262
Where x=0.2 and 𝑥0 = 0.1 we get
0.1 0.12 0.13
𝑦1 = 𝑓(0.2) = 11.052 + (11.062) + (11.262) + (13.262)
1! 2! 3!
0.14
+ (13.262) + ⋯
4!
y(0.1)=12.2168

Modified Euler’s Method

𝑑𝑦
Consider the IVP = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑦(0) = 𝑦0 -----------------------(1)
𝑑𝑥

To determine the solution of this problem at 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥0 + 𝑛ℎ bu using Euler’s method.

(𝐸)
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑦𝑛−1 + ℎ𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1 , 𝑦𝑛−1 )---------------------------------------(2)
The expression 2 gives an approximate value of y at 𝑥𝑛 . . To improve the approximation
the following formula has been suggested
ℎ (𝐸)
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑦𝑛−1 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1 , 𝑦𝑛−1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 )]----------------------------(3)

The method of computing 𝑦𝑛 using (3) is known as Modified Euler’s method.

The process of improving the approximation can be continued by obtaining replacing
(1) (2) (3)
𝑦𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 until the desired degree of accuracy is obtained.
(𝐸)
First approximation 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
(1) ℎ (𝐸)
Second approximation 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]

(2) ℎ (1)
Third approximation 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )] and so on

Example :1
𝑑𝑦 1
Using the modified Euler’s method, solve the IVP 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥+𝑦 , 𝑦(0) = 1 at points x=0.5
and x=1 in steps of length h=0.5. Carry out two modifications at each step.
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥0 = 0 , 𝑦0 = 1 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ = 0.5
𝑑𝑥

(𝐸) 1 0.5
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = 𝑦0 + ℎ 𝑥 = 1 + 0+1 = 1.5
0 +𝑦0

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 (1) ℎ (𝐸)
First modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]
2

ℎ 1 1 0.5 1 1
= 𝑦0 + [ + 𝐸 ]= 1+ [ + ] = 1.375
2 𝑥0 + 𝑦0 𝑥0 + 𝑦1 2 0 + 1 0.5 + 1.5
(2) ℎ (1)
Second modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]

ℎ 1 1 0.5 1 1
= 𝑦0 + [ + 1 ]=1+ [ + ] = 1.3833
2 𝑥0 + 𝑦0 𝑥0 + 𝑦1 2 0 + 1 0.5 + 1.375

Next, to compute the solution 𝑦2 = 𝑦(1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑥0 = 0.5 , 𝑦0 = 1.3833

(𝐸) 1 0.5
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = 𝑦0 + ℎ = 1.3833 + = 1.6488
𝑥0 +𝑦0 0.5+1.3833

(1) ℎ (𝐸)
First modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]

ℎ 1 1 0.5 1 1
= 𝑦0 + [ + 𝐸 ] = 1.3833 + [ + ]=
2 𝑥0 + 𝑦0 𝑥0 + 𝑦1 2 0.5 + 1.3833 1 + 1.6488
= 1.6104
(2) ℎ (1)
second modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]

ℎ 1 1 0.5 1 1
= 𝑦0 + [ + 1 ] = 1.3833 + [ + ]
2 𝑥0 + 𝑦0 𝑥0 + 𝑦1 2 0.5 + 1.3833 1 + 1.6104
= 1.6118

The required solution are y(0.5)=1.3833 and y(1)=1.6118

Example: 2
𝑑𝑦
Using the modified Euler’s method, solve the IVP = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑦(0) = 1 at points x=0.1
𝑑𝑥
in steps of length h=0.1. Carry out two modifications.
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑥0 = 0 , 𝑦0 = 1 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ = 0.1
𝑑𝑥
(𝐸)
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = 𝑦0 + ℎ(𝑥0 + 𝑦02 ) = 1 + 0.1 ∗ (0 + 1) = 1.1
(1) ℎ (𝐸)
First modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]

ℎ 0.1
= 𝑦0 + [𝑥0 + 𝑦02 + 𝑥0 + ((𝑦1𝐸 )2 )] = 1 + [0 + 1 + (0.1 + 1.12 )] = 1.1155
2 2
(2) ℎ (1)
second modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]

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 ℎ 0.1
= 𝑦0 + [𝑥0 + 𝑦02 + 𝑥0 + ((𝑦11 )2)] = 1 + [0 + 1 + (0.1 + 1.11552 )] = 1.1172
2 2

Hence the required solution is y(01)=1.1172

Example :3
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
Using the modified Euler’s method, solve the IVP = 1 + + 𝑥 , 𝑦(1) = 2 at points x=0.1 in
𝑑𝑥
steps of length h=0.2. Carry out three modifications.

Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1 + 𝑥 𝑥0 = 1 , 𝑦0 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ = 0.2
𝑑𝑥

(𝐸) 𝑦 2
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = 𝑦0 + ℎ [1 + 𝑥0 ] = 2 + 0.2(1 + 1) = 2.6
0

(1) ℎ (𝐸)
First modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]
(𝐸)
ℎ 𝑦0 𝑦 0.2 2 2.6
= 𝑦0 + [1 + + 1 + 1 ] = 2 + [1 + + (1 + )] = 2.6167
2 𝑥0 𝑥0 2 1 1.2

(2) ℎ (1)
second modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]
(1)
ℎ 𝑦0 𝑦 0.2 2 2.6167
= 𝑦0 + [1 + + 1 + 1 ] = 2 + [1 + + (1 + )] = 2.6181
2 𝑥0 𝑥0 2 1 1.2

(3) ℎ (2)
Third modification 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 2 [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )]
(2)
ℎ 𝑦0 𝑦 0.2 2 2.6181
= 𝑦0 + [1 + + 1 + 1 ] = 2 + [1 + + (1 + )] = 2.61812
2 𝑥0 𝑥0 2 1 1.2

Hence , the value of y at x=1.2 is 2.6182

Example:4
dy
Using Modified Euler’s method, find y(0.1) given  x 2  y & y  1 when x = 0 by taking
dx
h = 0.05. Perform two iterations in each step.

Solution:
f ( x, y)  x 2  y, x0  0, y0  1& h  0.05, Hence f ( x0 , y0 )  0  1  1
 y1(0)  y0  hf ( x0 , y0 )  1  0.05 1  1.05 . Now f ( x1 , y1(0) )  0.052  1.05  1.0525

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 h 0.05
 y1(1)  y0  f ( x0 , y0 )  f ( x1 , y1(0) )   1  1  1.0525  1.0513 .
2  2
Now f ( x1 , y1(1) )  0.052  1.0513  1.0538
h 0.05
 y1(2)  y0   f ( x0 , y0 )  f ( x1, y1(1) )   1  1  1.0538  1.0513. Hence
2  2
y1  y (0.05)  1.0513
Now f ( x1 , y1 )  0.052  1.0513  1.0538
 y2(0)  y1  hf ( x1 , y1 )  1.0513  0.05 1.0538  1.1040 . Now
f ( x2 , y2(0) )  0.12  1.1040  1.114
h 0.05
 y2(1)  y1   f ( x1 , y1 )  f ( x2 , y2(0) )   1.0513  1.0538  1.114  1.1055.
2  2
Now f ( x2 , y2(1) )  0.12  1.1055  1.1155
h 0.05
 y2(2)  y1   f ( x1 , y1 )  f ( x2 , y2(1) )   1.0513  1.0538  1.1155  1.1055.
2  2
Hence y2  y (0.1)  1.1055.

RUNGE- KUTTA METHOD (R-K METHOD)

𝑑𝑦
Consider the IVP = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑦(0) = 𝑦0 -----------------------(1)
𝑑𝑥

To determine the solution of this problem at 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥0 + 𝑛ℎ by using this method, where h

is step length
According to the Euler’s method , the solution at 𝑥1 𝑖𝑠 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) .
This can be rewritten as 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 𝐾
where
𝑘1 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
ℎ 𝑘1
𝑘2 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + )
2 2
ℎ 𝑘2
𝑘3 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + )
2 2
𝑘4 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑦0 + 𝑘3 )
𝑘1 +2𝑘2 +2𝑘3 +𝑘4
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + is an approximate solution for the equation (1) at x1 , known as
6
Runge-Kutta method of order four.

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 Example:1
𝑑𝑦 𝑦−𝑥
Using RK method of fourth order , to find y(0.2), given that 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦+𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(0) =
1 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 ℎ = 0.2
Solution
𝑑𝑦 𝑦−𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦+𝑥 , 𝑥 0 = 0, 𝑦0 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 0.2 then 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 + ℎ = 0.2
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 −𝑥 1−0
𝑘1 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ℎ (𝑦0 +𝑥0 ) =(0.2) (1+0) = 0.2
0 0

𝑘 ℎ
ℎ 𝑘1 𝑦0 + 21 − ( 𝑥0 + 2)
𝑘2 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = ℎ ( )
2 2 𝑘1 ℎ
𝑦0 + 2 + ( 𝑥0 + 2)
1.1−0.1
= 0.2 (1.1+0.1) = 0.16667
𝑘 ℎ
ℎ 𝑘2 𝑦0 + 2 −( 𝑥0 + )
2 2
𝑘3 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + 2 , 𝑦0 + )=ℎ ( 𝑘 ℎ )
2 𝑦0 + 2 +( 𝑥0 + )
2 2

1+0.083335−0.1 0.196667
= 0.2 (1.1+0.11+0.083335+0.1) = 1.183335 = 0.166197

𝑦 +𝑘 −( 𝑥 +ℎ)
𝑘4 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑦0 + 𝑘3 ) = ℎ (𝑦0 +𝑘3 +( 𝑥0 +ℎ))
0 3 0

1.166197 − 0.2 0.1932394

= 0.2 ( )= = 0.14144
1.166197 + 0.2 1.366197

𝑘1 +2𝑘2 +2𝑘3 +𝑘4

𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 6

0.2+2(0.16667)+2(0.166197)+0.14144
=1+ 6

𝑦1 =1.16786
Example :2
𝑑𝑦
Using RK method of fourth order , to find y(0.2), given that 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(0) =
1 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 ℎ = 0.1
Solution
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 , 𝑥 0 = 0, 𝑦0 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 0.1 then 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 + ℎ = 0.1
𝑑𝑥

𝑘1 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ℎ(𝑥0 2 − 𝑦0 ) = 0.1 ∗ (0 − 1) = −0.1

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 ℎ 𝑘1 ℎ 2 𝑘1
𝑘2 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = ℎ ((𝑥0 + ) − (𝑦0 + ))
2 2 2 2

0.1 2 −0.1
= 0.1 (0 + ) − (1 + ) = 0.1( (0.05)2 − 0.95) = −0.09475
2 2

ℎ 𝑘2 ℎ 2 𝑘2
𝑘3 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = ℎ ((𝑥0 + ) − (𝑦0 + ))
2 2 2 2

= 0.1( (0.05)2 − (1 − 0.047375)) = −0.0950125

𝑘4 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑦0 + 𝑘3 ) = ℎ ((𝑥0 + ℎ)2 − (𝑦0 + 𝑘3 ))

= 0.1( (0.05)2 − (1 − 0.0950125)) = −0.0895

𝑘1 +2𝑘2 +2𝑘3 +𝑘4
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 6
−0.1−0.1895−0.190025−0.0895
=1+ 6

= 0.90516
Example 3: Use fourth Runge –Kutta method to find at x  0.1 given that

dy
 3e x +2y, y(0) and h=0.1
dx
>> By data, f(x,y)=3 e x +2y, x 0 =0, y 0 =0,h=0.1

We shall compute k1, k2 , k3 , k4

k1  hf ( x 0 , y 0 )  (0.1) f (0,0)  (0.1)[3e 0  2  0]  0.3

k
k 2  hf  x 0  h   (0.1) f (0.05,0.15)
h
, y0  1
2 2

=(0.1) 3e 0.05


 2(0.15)  0.3454

k 3  hf  x 0    (0.1) f (0.05,0.1727)
h k2
, y0 
2 2

=(0.1)[3 e 0.05  2(0.1727 ]=0.3499

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 k 4  hf ( x0  h, y 0  k 3 )  (0.1) f (0.1,0.3499)


=(0.1) 3e 0.1  2(0.3499)   0.4015
𝑘1 +2𝑘2 +2𝑘3 +𝑘4
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 6

0.3+2(0.3454)+2(0.3499)+0.4015
=1+ 6

= 0.3487
Example 4:
Use fourth order Runge-kutta method to compute y(1.1) given that
1
 xy 3 , y1  1
dy
dx
Solution
1
>>By data f ( x, y)  xy 3 x 0  1 , y 0  1 and we need to compute y(1.1) implies
x0  h  1.1 h  0.1

We shall compute k1 , k 2 , k 3 , k 4
 1

k1  hf ( x0, y 0 )  (0.1) f (1,1)  (0.1) (1)(1) 3   0.1
 

 h 
k 2  hf  x0  , y0  k1   (0.1) f (1.05,1.05)
 2 2 
1

= (0.1) [(1.05)(1.05) 3]
 0.1067

k
k 3  hf  x 0    (0.1) f (1.05,1.05335)
h
, y0  2
2 2
1

 (0.1)[(1.05)91.05335) ]  0.1068 3

k 4  hf ( x0  h, y 0  k 3)  (0.1) f (1.1,1.1068)

1
= (0.1) [ (1.1)(1.1068) 3 ] =0.1138
1
y(x 0 + h )=y 0 + [0.1+2(0.1067)+2(0.1068)+0.1138]
6
y(1.1)=1.1068

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 Example 5:
dy
Using Runge Kutta method of fourth order solve  y  2 x at x  1.1
dx
Given that y=3 at x = 1 initially.
Solution:
dy
>> We have  2 x  y, x0  1, y 0  3
dx
f ( x, y )  2 x  y, x 0  h  1.1 h  0.1
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 , 𝑥 0 = 1, 𝑦0 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 0.1 then 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 + ℎ = 0.1
𝑑𝑥

𝑘1 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = ℎ(2𝑥0 − 𝑦0 ) = 0.1 ∗ (2 − 3) = −0.1

ℎ 𝑘1
𝑘2 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = 0.1ℎ𝑓(1.05,2.95) =
2 2
= 0.1 (2 ∗ 1.05 − 2.95) = −0.085
ℎ 𝑘2
𝑘3 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = ℎ𝑓 (1.05,2.91425)
2 2
= 0.1( 2 ∗ 1.05 − 2.91425) = −0.08575
𝑘4 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑦0 + 𝑘3 ) = ℎ𝑓 (1.1,2.91425)
= 0.1( 2 ∗ 1.1 − 2.91425) = −0.071425
𝑘1 +2𝑘2 +2𝑘3 +𝑘4
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 6
−0.1−0.085−0.08575−0.071425
=1+ 6

= 2.9145

Example 6:
Using Runge Kutta method of fourth order solve (𝒚𝟐 −𝒙𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 = (𝒚𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 )𝒅𝒚
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟎. 𝟒 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒚 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 ,
𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆 − 𝑲𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒂 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟒.
Solution:
(𝒚𝟐 −𝒙𝟐 )
We have 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝒚𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 ) , 𝑥 0 = 0, 𝑦0 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 0.2

Stage -1:
(𝒚𝟐 −𝒙𝟐 )
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝒚𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 )

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 𝑑𝑦 (𝒚𝟐 −𝒙𝟐 )
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝒚𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 ) , 𝑥 0 = 0, 𝑦0 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 0.2 then 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 + ℎ = 0.2
𝑑𝑥

𝑘1 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = (0.2)𝑓(0,1) = 0.2

ℎ 𝑘1
𝑘2 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = (0.2)𝑓(0.1 , 1.1) = 0.1967
2 2
ℎ 𝑘2
𝑘3 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = (0.2)𝑓(0.1 ,1.0984) = 0.1967
2 2
𝑘4 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑦0 + 𝑘3 ) = (0.2)𝑓(0.2 , 1.1967) = 0.1891
𝑘1 + 2𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 + 𝑘4
𝑦(𝑥0 + ℎ) = 𝑦0 +
6
0.2+2(0.1967)+2(0.1967)+0.1891
𝑦(0.2) = 1 + = 1.196
6

Stage-2:
𝑑𝑦 (𝒚𝟐 −𝒙𝟐 )
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝒚𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 ) , 𝑥 0 = 0.2, 𝑦0 = 1.196 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 0.2 then 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 + ℎ = 0.4
𝑑𝑥

𝑘1 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = (0.2)𝑓(0.2,1.196) = 0.1891

ℎ 𝑘1
𝑘2 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = (0.2)𝑓(0.3 , 1.29055) = 0.1795
2 2
ℎ 𝑘2
𝑘3 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + ) = (0.2)𝑓(0.3 ,1.28575) = 0.1793
2 2
𝑘4 = ℎ𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑦0 + 𝑘3 ) = (0.2)𝑓(0.4 , 1.3753) = 0.1688
𝑘1 + 2𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 + 𝑘4
𝑦(𝑥0 + ℎ) = 𝑦0 +
6
0.1891+2(0.1795)+2(0.1793)+0.1688
𝑦(0.4) = 1.196 + = 1.3753
6

Milne’s Method:
The method in which the construction of yn involves the use of not only yn-1but also
predecessors are called multi step methods. In multi-step methods two formulas are used
in conjunction with each other- one for predicting the value of yn and the other for
correcting the predicted value of yn.
𝑑𝑦
Consider the IVP = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − − − (1)
𝑑𝑥

Let y0=y(x0),y1=y(x1),y2=y(x2) and y3=y(x3) be these known solutions.

Suppose we wish to determine the solution of equation (1) at the point x4 = x3+h.
Let us denote the required solution by y4=y(x4).

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 161

 First we predict the value of y4=y(x4) by using Milne’s predictor formula:
(𝑝) 4ℎ
𝑦4 = 𝑦0 + (2𝑓1 − 𝑓2 + 2𝑓3 ) --- (2)
3

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦0 , 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3

Next we correct the value of y4 by using the Milne’s corrector formula:
(𝑐) ℎ (𝑝)
𝑦4 = 𝑦2 + 3 (𝑓2 + 4𝑓3 + 𝑓4 ) --- (3)
(𝑝) (𝑝)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 )

𝐼𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑙𝑦

Example :1
Use Milne’s predictor –corrector method to find the value of y at x=0.8, given
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 Where y(0)=0 , y(0.2)=0.02 , y(0.4)=0.0795 , y(0.6)=0.1762. Apply
𝑑𝑥
corrector formula twice.
Solution:
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 , ℎ = 0.2
X Y 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 − 𝑦 2

x0=0 y0=0 𝑓0=0−02=0

X1=0.2 y1=0.02 𝑓1=0.2−0.022 =0.1996

X2=0.4 y2=0.0795 𝑓2=0.4−0.07952 =0.3937

X3=0.6 y3=0.1762 𝑓3=0.6−0.17622 =0.5689

Now , Milne’s Predictor formula yields the predicted value of y4 as

(𝑝) 4ℎ 4 ∗ 0.2
𝑦4 = 𝑦0 + (2𝑓1 − 𝑓2 + 2𝑓3 ) = 0 + (2(0.1996) − 0.3937 + 2(0.5689))
3 3
= 0.3048
(𝑝) (𝑝) (𝑝) 2
𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = 𝑥4 − 𝑦4 = 0.8 − (0.30488)2 = 0.7070
Now , the Milne’s corrector formula gives a corrected value of y4 as

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 (𝑐) ℎ (𝑝) 0.2
𝑦4 = 𝑦2 + (𝑓2 + 4𝑓3 + 𝑓4 ) = 0.0795 + (0.3937 + 4(0.5689) + 0.7070)
3 3
= 0.3046
To apply corrector formula second time we must use corrector as predictor and substitute
(𝑝)
in 𝑓4
(𝑝) (𝑝) (𝑝) 2
𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = 𝑥4 − 𝑦4 = 0.8 − (0.3046)2 = 0.7072

(𝑐) ℎ (𝑝) 0.2

𝑦4 = 𝑦2 + (𝑓2 + 4𝑓3 + 𝑓4 ) = 0.0795 + (0.3937 + 4(0.5689) + 0.7072)
3 3
= 03046
This twice corrected value of y4 is the required value of y at x=0.8.
Example :2
𝑑𝑦
Use Milne’s predictor –corrector method Given the differential equation , given 5x𝑑𝑥 +
𝑦 2 − 2 = 0 and the set of values of (x,y)given in the following table, find the value of y
at x=4.5 using the Milne’s method
Where y(4)=1 , y(4.1)=1.0049 , y(4.2)=1.0097 , y(4.3)=1.0143, y(4.4)=1.0187 . Apply
corrector formula twice.
Solution:
𝑦2 − 2 2 − 𝑦2
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = − [ ]=[ ]
5𝑥 5𝑥

X Y 2 − 𝑦2
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = [ ]
5𝑥
x0=4 y0=1 𝑓 2−1.00972
0=[ ]=0.04669
5(4.2)
X1=4.1 y1=1.0049 𝑓 2−1.00972
1=[ ]=0.04669
5(4.2)
2
X2=4.2 y2=1.0097 2 − 1.0097
[ ] = 0.04669
5(4.2)
X3=4.3 y3=1.0143 2 − 1.00972
[ ] = 0.04517
5(4.2)
X4=4.4 Y4=1.0187 2 − 1.00972
[ ] = 0.04374
5(4.2)
Now , Milne’s Predictor formula yields the predicted value of y4 as

(𝑝) 4ℎ
𝑦4 = 𝑦0 + (2𝑓1 − 𝑓2 + 2𝑓3 )
3
4 ∗ 0.1
= 1.0049 + (2(0.04669) − 0.04517 + 2(0.04374)) = 1.02299
3

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 (𝑝) 2
(𝑝) 2 − 𝑦4 2 − 1.022992
𝑓(X4, 𝑦4 ) =[ ]=[ ] = 0.042378
5𝑥 5(4.5)

Now , the Milne’s corrector formula gives a corrected value of y4 as

(𝑐) ℎ (𝑝) 0.1

𝑦4 = 𝑦2 + (𝑓2 + 4𝑓3 + 𝑓4 ) = 1.0143 + (0.04517 + 4(0.04374) + 0.042378)
3 3
= 1.02305
To apply corrector formula second time we must use corrector as predictor and substitute
(𝑝)
in 𝑓4

(𝑝) (𝑝) 2 − 1.023052

𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = [ ] = 0.042372
5(4.5)

(𝑐) ℎ (𝑝) 0.1

𝑦4 = 𝑦2 + (𝑓2 + 4𝑓3 + 𝑓4 ) = 1.0143 + (0.04517 + 4(0.04374) + 0.042372)
3 3
= 1.02305
This twice corrected value of y4 is the required value of y at x=4.5.

Example :3
Use Milne’s predictor –corrector method Given the differential equation, given
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑦) x at 1.4 . Carry out two corrections for the solution, given that y(1)=1,
𝑑𝑥
y(1.1)=1.233 , y(1.2)=1.548 , y(1.3)=1.979.
Solution:
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑦) , ℎ = 0.1
X Y 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑦)
x0=1 y0=1 𝑓0=12 (1+1) =2
X1=1.1 y1=1.233 𝑓1 = 2.702
X2=1.2 y2=1.548 𝑓2 = 3.669
X3=1.3 y3=1.979 𝑓3 = 5.035
(𝑝) 4ℎ
𝑦4 = 𝑦0 + 3 (2𝑓1 − 𝑓2 + 2𝑓3 )
4(0.1)
=1+ (2 ∗ 2.702 − 3.669 + 2 ∗ 5.035) = 2.572 ------------(1)
3
(𝑝) (𝑝) (𝑝)
𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = 𝑥42 (1 + 𝑦4 ) = 1.42 (1 + 2.572) = 5.0008

(𝑐) ℎ (𝑝)
𝑦4 = 𝑦2 + (𝑓2 + 4𝑓3 + 𝑓4 ) − − − − − −(2)
3
0.1
= 1.548 + (3.669 + 4 ∗ 5.035 + 5.0008) = 2.5089
3

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 164

 (𝑝)
To get a correction of this solution 𝑦4 = 2.5089
(𝑝) (𝑝) (𝑝)
𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = 𝑥42 (1 + 𝑦4 ) = 1.42 (1 + 2.5089) = 6.8774
(𝑐) 0.1
𝑦4 = 1.548 + (3.669 + 4 ∗ 5.035 + 6.8774)
3

y(1.4)=2.5752 is the required solution as correct to 4 decimal places.

Example :4
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
Use Milne’s predictor –corrector method Given the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2
find y(1.4) given that y(1)=2, y(1.1)=2.2156 , y(1.2)=2.4649 , y(1.3)=2.7514.
Solution:
𝑦
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 2 , ℎ = 0.1

X Y 𝑦
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 +
2
x0=1 y0=2 𝑓0= 2
X1=1.1 y1=2.2156 𝑓1 = 2.3178
X2=1.2 y2=2.4649 𝑓2 = 2.6724
X3=1.3 y3=2.7514 𝑓3 = 3.0657

(𝑝) 4ℎ
𝑦4 = 𝑦0 + (2𝑓1 − 𝑓2 + 2𝑓3 )
3

(𝑝) 4(0.1)
𝑦4 =1+ (2 ∗ 2.3178 − 2.6724 + 2 ∗ 3.0657) = 3.0793 ------------(1)
3
(𝑝)
(𝑝) (𝑝) 𝑦 3.0793
𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = 𝑥42 + 4 = 1.42 + = 3.49965
2 2

(𝑐) ℎ (𝑝)
𝑦4 = 𝑦2 + 3 (𝑓2 + 4𝑓3 + 𝑓4 ) − − − − − −(2)
0.1
= 2.4649 + (2.6724 + 4 ∗ 3.0657 + 3.49965) = 3.0794
3
(𝑝)
To get a correction of this solution 𝑦4 = 3.0794
(𝑝)
(𝑝) (𝑝) 𝑦 3.0794
𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = 𝑥42 + 4 = 1.42 + = 3.4997
2 2

(𝑐) 0.1
𝑦4 = 2.4649 + (2.6724 + 4 ∗ 3.0657 + 3.4997) = 3.0794
3

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 165

 Example :5
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦 , y(0)=2, y(0.1)=2.010 , y(0.2)=2.040 , y(0.3)=2.090 . find y(0.4) Using
Milne’s predictor –corrector method
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦 , ℎ = 0.1
X Y 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦
x0=0 y0=2 𝑓0= 0
X1=0.1 y1=2.010 𝑓1 = 0.2003
X2=0.2 y2=2.040 𝑓2 = 0.4028
X3=0.3 y3=2.090 𝑓3 = 0.6097

(𝑝) 4ℎ
𝑦4 = 𝑦0 + (2𝑓1 − 𝑓2 + 2𝑓3 )
3
(𝑝) 4(0.1)
𝑦4 =1+ (2 ∗ 0.2003 − 0.4028 + 2 ∗ 0.6097) = 2.1623 ------------(1)
3
(𝑝) (𝑝) (𝑝)
𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = 2𝑒 𝑥4 − 𝑦4 = 2𝑒 0.4 − 2.1623 = 0.8213

(𝑐) ℎ (𝑝)
𝑦4 = 𝑦2 + (𝑓2 + 4𝑓3 + 𝑓4 ) − − − − − −(2)
3
0.1
= 2.040 + (0.4028 + 4 ∗ 0.6097 + 0.8213) = 2.1621
3
(𝑝)
To get a correction of this solution 𝑦4 = 2.1621
(𝑝) (𝑝) (𝑝)
𝑓4 = 𝑓(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) = 2𝑒 𝑥4 − 𝑦4 = 2𝑒 0.4 − 2.1621 = 0.8215
(𝑐) 0.1
𝑦4 = = 2.040 + (0.4028 + 4 ∗ 0.6097 + 0.8215) = 2.1621
3

Exercises
1) Evaluate y (0.1) correct to 6 places of decimals by Taylor’s series method if y (x ) satisfies
x 2 x3 x 4 x 5 x 6
y '  xy  1, y (0)  1. [Ans: y( x)  1  x       & y(0.1) =
2 3 8 15 48
1.1053]
2) Solve y '  y 2  x, y (0)  1 using Taylor’s series method & compute y (0.1) & y (0.2)
3 4 17 31 5
[Ans: y ( x)  1  x  x 2  x3  x 4  x  and y(0.1) = 1.1165, y(0.2) = 1.2734]
2 3 12 20
3) Use Taylor’s series method to find y at the point x  0.1 & x  0.2, given that
dy
 x 2  y 2 , y (0)  1
dx

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 166

 dy y  x
4) Given  with boundary condition y = 1 when x = 0, find approximately y for x =
dx y  x
0.1 by Modified Euler’s method [Ans: 1.0928]
dy
5) Given that  x  y 2 & y  1 at x  0. Find a approximate value of y at x = 0.5 by
dx
Modified Euler’s method. [Ans: 2.2352]
dy
6) Solve the differential equation   xy 2 , y  2 at x  0, by Modified Euler’s method &
dx
obtain y at x = 0.2 in two stages of 0.1 each. [Ans: 1.9227]

dy
7) Using Runge – Kutta method of order 4, compute y (0.2) & y (0.4) from 10  x2  y2,
dx
y (0)  1, taking h = 0.1 [Ans: 1.0207, 1.0438]
8) Use Runge – Kutta fourth order method to find y when x = 1.2 in steps of 0.1 given that
dy
 x 2  y 2 & y (1)  1.5 [Ans: 2.5005]
dx
2x
9) Using Runge-Kutta method of order 4, compute y(0.2) for the equation, y '  y  , y(0)
y
= 1.0 (Take h = 0.2) [Ans: 1.18323]

dy y  x
10) Using Runge – Kutta method of order 4, find y(0.2) for the equation  ,
dx y  x
y ( 0 )  1. Take h = 0.2. [Ans: 1.1678 ]

dy
11) If  2e x  y , y(0) = 2, y(0.1) = 2.010, y(0.2) = 2.04 and y(0.3) = 2.09 find y(0.4)
dx
correct to four decimal places. By using Milne’s predictor-corrector method. (Use corrector
formula twice). [Ans: 2.1621 & 2.2546]
dy
12) Given 2  (1  x 2 ) y 2 & y (0)  1, y (0.1)  1.06, y (0.2)  1.12, y (0.3)  1.21. Evaluate
dx
y (0.4) by Milne’s predictor – corrector method.[Ans: 1.2797]

MATHEMATICS-II FOR CIVIL ENGG. STREAM-BMATC201 167