DESIGN AGAINST STATIC LOADING

A static load is defined as a force, which is gradually applied to a mechanical component

and which does not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time.

Modes of Failure
A mechanical component may fail, that is, may be unable to perform its function
satisfactorily, as a result of any one of the following three modes of failure:
(i) failure by elastic deflection;
 In applications like transmission shaft supporting gears, the maximum force acting on
the shaft, without affecting its performance, is limited by the permissible elastic
deflection. Lateral or torsional rigidity is considered as the criterion of design

ymax = PL˄3/48EI
 the elastic deflection in buckling of columns or vibrations.
(ii) failure by general yielding
 A mechanical component made of ductile material loses its engineering usefulness due
to a large amount of plastic deformation after the yield point stress is reached
 The yield strength of a material is an important property when a component is designed
against failure due to general yielding.

(iii) Failure by fracture.

 Components made of brittle material cease to function satisfactorily because of the
sudden fracture without any plastic deformation. The failure in this case is sudden and
total.
 In such cases, ultimate tensile strength of the material is an important property to
determine the dimensions of these components.
 FACTOR OF SAFETY
The factor of safety is defined as
fs = failure stress /allowable stress or
(fs ) = failure load /working load
 The allowable stress is considered as a stress, which the designer expects will not be
exceeded under normal operating conditions
 For ductile materials,
σ allowable = Syt / fs
 For brittle materials, the relationship is,
σ allowable = Sut / fs
where Syt and Sut are the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength of the material
respectively.
The magnitude of factor of safety depends upon the following factors:
 Effect of Failure
A low factor of safety is required for failure of a machine element that involves little
inconvenience or loss of time, e.g., failure of the ball bearing in a gearbox.
A high factor of safety is required where there is substantial financial loss or danger to the
human life, e.g., failure of the valve in a pressure vessel.

 Type of Load
For static loads low factor of safety is required
For dynamic & impact loads high factor of safety is required.

 Degree of Accuracy in Force Analysis

When the forces acting on the machine component are precisely determined, a low factor of
safety can be selected
When the machine component is subjected to a force whose magnitude or direction is
uncertain and unpredictable a high factor of safety is required.
 Material of Component
For components made of ductile material a low factor of safety is required.
For components made of brittle material a high factor of safety is required.

 Reliability of Component
In certain applications like continuous process equipment, power stations or defense
equipment, high reliability of components is expected. The factor of safety increases
with increasing reliability.

 Cost of Component
As the factor of safety increases, dimensions of the component, material requirement and
cost increase. The factor of safety is low for cheap machine parts.
The guidelines for selection of quantitative values of the factor of safety are as follows:
 For cast iron components a large factor of safety, usually 3 to 5, based on ultimate
tensile strength, is used in the design of cast iron components.
 For components made of ductile materials like steel the recommended factor of safety is
1.5 to 2, based on the yield strength of the material.
 For components made of ductile materials and those subjected to external fluctuating
forces the recommended factor of safety based on this endurance limit of component is
usually 1.3 to 1.5.
 The design of certain components such as cams and followers, gears, rolling contact
bearings or rail and wheel is based on the calculation of contact stresses by the Hertz’
theory. The recommended factor of safety for such components is 1.8 to 2.5 based on
surface endurance limit.
 Certain components, such as piston rods, power screws or studs, are designed on the
basis of buckling consideration. The recommended factor of safety is 3 to 6 based on the
critical buckling load of such components.
 THEORIES OF ELASTIC FAILURE
The principal theories of elastic failure are as follows:
(i) Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

(ii) Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca and Guest’s theory)

(iii) Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises and Hencky’s theory)

(iv) Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)

(v) Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory)

 MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS
THEORY/RANKINE’S THEORY
The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses occurs when the maximum principal stress reaches the yield or ultimate
strength of the material.

If σ1, σ2 and σ3 are the three principal stresses at a point on the component and
σ1 > σ2 > σ3 then according to this theory, the failure occurs whenever
σ1 = Syt (for ductile material) or σ1 = Sut (for brittle material) whichever is applicable.

The theory considers only the maximum of principal stresses and disregards the influence of
the other principal stresses.
The dimensions of the component are determined by using a factor of safety.
For tensile stresses, σ1 = Syt/fs or σ1 = Sut/fs
For compressive stresses, σ1 = Syc/fs or σ1 =Suc/fs
Region of Safety
 The two principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are plotted on X and Y axes respectively.
 Tensile stresses are considered as positive, while compressive stresses as negative.
 It is further assumed that Syc = Syt
The borderline for the region of safety for this theory can be constructed in the following
way:
Step 1: Suppose σ1 > σ2
As per this theory, we will consider only the maximum of principal stresses (σ1) and
disregard the other principal stress (σ2).
Suppose (σ1) is the tensile stress. The limiting value of (σ1) is yield stress (Syt).
Therefore, the boundary line will be, σ1 = + Syt
A vertical line AB is constructed such that σ1 = + Syt.
Step 2: Suppose σ1 > σ2 and (σ1) is compressive stress.
The limiting value of (σ1) is compressive yield stress (– Syc).
Therefore, the boundary line will be, σ1 = – Syc
A vertical line DC is constructed such that s1 = – Syc.
Step 3: Suppose σ2 > σ1
As per this theory, we will consider only the maximum of principal stresses (σ2) and
disregard the other principal stress (σ1).
Suppose (σ2) is the tensile stress. The limiting value of (σ2) is the yield stress (Syt).
Therefore, the boundary line will be, σ2 = + Syt
A horizontal line CB is constructed such that σ2 = + Syt
Step 4: Suppose σ2 > σ1 and (σ2) is the compressive stress.
The limiting value of (σ2) is compressive yield stress (– Syc).
Therefore, the boundary line will be, σ2 = – Syc
A horizontal line DA is constructed such that σ2 = – Syc.

 The complete region of safety is the area ABCD

 According to the maximum principal stress theory of failure, if a point with co-ordinates
(σ1,σ2) falls outside this square then it indicates the failure condition. On the other hand, if
the point falls inside the square, the design is safe and the failure may not occur.
 Maximum principal stress theory gives good predictions for brittle materials.
 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY
/COULOMB,TRESCA & GUEST THEORY
The theory states that the failure of a mechanical component subjected to bi-axial
or tri-axial stresses occurs when the maximum shear stress at any point in the component
becomes equal to the maximum shear stress in the standard specimen of
the tension test, when yielding starts.
 In the tension test, the specimen is subjected to uni-axial stress (σ1) and (σ2 = 0).
 The stress in the specimen of tension test and the corresponding Mohr’s circle diagram
are shown in Figure below.

From figure τmax = σ1/2

 When the specimen starts yielding (σ1 = Syt), the above equation is written as

τmax = Syt/2
Therefore, the maximum shear stress theory predicts that the yield strength in shear is half of
the yield strength in tension, i.e.
Ssy = 0.5 Syt
 Suppose σ1, σ2 and σ3 are the three principal stresses at a point on the component, the
shear stresses on three different planes are given by
τ12 = (σ1- σ2) / 2 τ23 = (σ2 – σ3) / 2 τ31 = (σ3 – σ1) / 2
 The largest of these stresses is equated to (τmax) or (Syt /2).
(σ1 – σ2)/2 = Syt/2 (σ2 – σ3)/2 =Syt/2 (σ3 – σ1)/2 = Syt/2
or
(σ1 – σ2)= Syt (σ2 – σ3) =Syt (σ3 – σ1) = Syt
For compressive stresses
(σ1 – σ2) = -Syc (σ2 – σ3) = -Syc (σ3 – σ1) = -Syc

The above equations can be written as, (Assuming Syc = Syt)

(σ1 – σ2) = ±Syt
(σ2 – σ3) = ±Syt
(σ3 – σ1) = ±Syt
Region of Safety:
 The two principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are plotted on the X and Y axes respectively.
 Tensile stresses are considered as positive, while compressive stresses as negative.
 It is further assumed that Syc = Syt
The borderline for the region of safety for this theory can be constructed in the following
way:
Step 1: In the first quadrant, both (σ1) and (σ2) are positive or tensile stresses.
 Suppose σ1 > σ2
The yielding will depend upon where (σ1) or (σ2) is greater in magnitude.
The boundary line will be, σ1 = + Syt
A vertical line AB is constructed such that σ1 = + Syt.
 Suppose σ2 > σ1
The boundary line will be, σ2 = + Syt
A horizontal line CB is constructed such that σ2 = + Syt
Step 2: In the third quadrant, both (σ1) and (σ2) are negative or compressive stresses.
 Suppose σ1 > σ2
The yielding will depend upon where (σ1) or (σ2) is greater in magnitude.
The boundary line will be, σ1 = - Syt
A vertical line DE is constructed such that σ1 = - Syt.
 Suppose σ2 > σ1
The boundary line will be, σ2 = - Syt
A horizontal line EF is constructed such that σ2 = - Syt
Step 3: In the second and fourth quadrants, (σ1) and (σ2) are of opposite sign.
 One stress is tensile while the other is compressive.
 The yielding will occur when, σ1 – σ2 = ± Syt
 In the second quadrant, line DC is constructed such that, σ1 – σ2 = – Syt
 It is observed that the intercept of the above line on the X-axis (σ2 = 0) is (– Syt) and
intercept on the Y-axis (σ1 = 0) is (+ Syt).
Step 4: In the fourth quadrant,
 Line FA is constructed such that, σ1 – σ2 = + Syt
 It is observed that the intercept of the above line on the X-axis (σ2 = 0) is (+ Syt) and
intercept on the Y-axis (σ1 = 0) is (– Syt).
 The complete region of safety is the hexagon ABCDEFA
 In case of bi-axial stress, if a point with coordinates
(σ1, σ2) falls outside this hexagon region, then it
indicates the failure condition. On the other hand,
if the point falls inside the hexagon, the design
is safe and the failure may not occur.
Shear Diagonal : Shear diagonal or line of pure shear is the locus of all points,
corresponding to pure shear stress.
 for pure shear stress, σ1 = – σ2 = τ12
 The above equation can be written as, σ1/σ2 = -1 = -tan 45˚
 A line GH is constructed in such a way that it passes through the origin O and makes an
angle of – 45° with the Y-axis. This line is called shear diagonal or line of pure shear.
 This line intersects the hexagon at two points G and H. The point of intersection of lines
FA (σ1 – σ2 = +Syt) and GH (σ1/σ2 = -1) is G.
 Solving two equations simultaneously, σ1 = – σ2 = + Syt/2
Since σ1 = – σ2 = τ12 or τ12 = 1/2 Syt
Since the point G is on the borderline,
this is the limiting value for shear stress.
or Ssy = 1/ 2 Syt.
 The maximum shear stress theory of failure
is widely used by designers for predicting the
failure of components, which are made of
ductile materials,
 DISTORTION-ENERGY THEORY
The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or
tri-axial stresses occurs when the strain energy of distortion per unit volume at any
point in the component, becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume in the standard specimen of tension-test, when yielding starts.

For Uni-axial Normal Stress

Strain energy U = ½ σx εx

For Shearing Stress

Strain energy U = ½ τ xy γxy
In a body in a general state of stress characterized by the six stress components σx , σy,
σz ,τxy , τyz , and τzx , the strain energy density
U = ½ (σx εx + σy εy + σz εz + τxy γxy + τyz γyz + τzx γzx) ----- (1)

The generalized Hooke’s law for a homogeneous isotropic

material under the most general stress condition is
εx = σx/E – νσy/E – νσz/E
εy = σy/E – νσx/E – νσz/E --------------(2)
εz = σz/E – νσx/E – νσy/E
τxy = G γxy, τyz = G γyz, τzx = G γzx
Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1)
2 2 2 2 2 2
u = 1/2E [σ X + σ y + σ z – 2ν (σx σy + σy σz + σz σx)] + 1/2G(τ xy + τ yz + τ zx)
A unit cube subjected to the three principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3
The total strain energy U of the cube is given by,
2 2 2
U = 1/2E [(σ 1+ σ 2 + σ 3) - 2ν (σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1) --------(3)
The total strain energy U is resolved into two components—first Uv corresponding to the
change of volume with no distortion of the element and the second Ud corresponding to the
distortion of the element with no change of volume.
Therefore, U = Uv + Ud ----------(4)
The corresponding stresses are also resolved into two components as shown in Fig.
From the figure,
σ 1 = σ1d + σv
σ2 = σ2d + σv -----------(5)
σ3 = σ3d + σv
 The components σ1d, σ2d and σ3d cause distortion of the cube,
 while the component σv results in volumetric change.
Since the components σ1d, σ2d and σ3d do not change the volume of the cube,
ε1d + ε2d + ε3d = 0 -----------(6)
Also ε1d = σ1d/E –ν σ2d/E – ν σ3d/E
ε2d = σ2d/E – ν σ1d/E – ν σ3d/E -------------------(7)
ε3d = σ3d/E – ν σ1d/E – ν σ2d/E
Substituting eqn(7) in eqn (6)
(1-2ν) (σ1d + σ2d + σ3d) = 0 ----------------(8)
Since (1-2ν) ≠ 0, (σ1d + σ2d + σ3d) = 0 --------------(9)
From eqn(5) & eqn(9)
σv = 1/3(σ1 + σ2 + σ3) ---------------(10)
The strain energy Uv corresponding to the change of volume for the cube is given by
Uv = 3/2(σv εv) -----------(11)
Also εv = 1/E [σv – ν(σv + σv)]
εv = (1-2ν)/E σv --------------------(12)
From eqn(11) & eqn(12)
2
Uv = 3(1-2ν)/2E σ v -------------(13)
Substituting eqn(10) in eqn(13)
2
Uv = (1-2ν) (σ1 + σ2 + σ3) /6E -------------------(14)
2 2 2
Ud = U – Uv = (1+ν)/6E [(σ1- σ2) +(σ2 – σ3) + (σ3- σ1) ] ---------------(15)

In simple tension test, when the specimen starts yielding, σ1 = Syt and σ2 = σ3 = 0
2
Ud = (1+ν)/3E S yt ----------------------(16)

From Eqs (15) & (16), the criterion of failure for the distortion energy theory is expressed as
2 2 2 2
2S yt = [ (σ1 – σ2) + (σ2 – σ3) + (σ3 – σ1) ]
2 2 2
Or Syt = √ 1/2[(σ1 – σ2) + (σ2 – σ3) + (σ3 – σ1) ] -----------------(17)
For bi-axial stresses and considering factor of safety
2 2
Syt/fs = √ (σ 1 – σ1σ2 + σ 2) -----------------(18)
A component subjected to pure shear stresses and the corresponding Mohr’s circle diagram
is shown below

From figure σ1 = - σ2 = τxy

Substituting these values in eqn(17)
Syt = √3 τxy or Ssy = 1/√3 Syt or Ssy = 0.557 Syt

Therefore, according to the distortion-energy theory, the yield strength in shear is 0.577
times the yield strength in tension.
Region of Safety
 The two principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are plotted on the X and Y axes respectively.
 Tensile stresses are considered as positive, while compressive stresses as negative.
For bi-axial stresses σ3 = 0
Substituting into eqn(17)
2 2 2
σ 1 – σ1σ2 + σ 2 = S yt
The above equation indicates an ellipse whose semi-major axis is (√2 Syt) and semi-minor
axis is √ (2/ 3 Syt)