1.

Overview of Computer Systems

• A computer is an electronic device that can carry out a variety of tasks using pre-defined
programs. These tasks include accepting input, processing data, storing data, and
producing output.

• The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computer" which means to
calculate or to count.

• Core abilities:
1. Accept data: Computers can receive data from various input devices like
keyboards, mice, scanners, etc.

2. Process data: They follow instructions from software to perform operations on

the input data.

3. Perform logical and mathematical operations: This includes calculations like

addition, subtraction, and logical operations like comparing two values.

4. Output results: After processing, computers can produce output that can be
displayed on a screen, printed on paper, or saved to a storage device.

2. Functions of a Computer
1. Input: Data entered into the computer through input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse,
scanner). These devices translate user actions into data the computer can process.

2. Processing: The CPU (Central Processing Unit) takes input data and processes it
according to instructions from the software. This could include calculations, decision-
making, and other data manipulations.
3. Output: The computer sends processed data to output devices such as monitors, printers,
or speakers, making the information accessible to users.

4. Storage: Data and instructions can be stored on various devices. Temporary storage is
handled by RAM (Random Access Memory), while long-term storage is managed by
hard drives or SSDs (Solid State Drives).

5. Controlling: The CPU controls all the activities of the computer, ensuring each part
works in harmony and instructions are executed correctly.
3. Characteristics of Computers
• Speed: Computers can execute millions of instructions per second, measured in MIPS
(Million Instructions Per Second).

• Storage: Computers can store vast amounts of data in different storage media, from
internal hard drives to external storage devices.
• Accuracy: Computers are extremely accurate, performing operations without error unless
incorrect data or instructions are provided (GIGO - Garbage In, Garbage Out).
• Diligence: Unlike humans, computers do not get tired. They can perform repetitive tasks
consistently without loss of performance.

• Versatility: Computers can perform a wide variety of tasks, from simple calculations to
complex simulations, by using different software programs.

• Automation: Once programmed, computers can perform tasks automatically without

human intervention.

• Word Length: The word length of a computer (8, 16, 32, or 64 bits) refers to the number
of bits the CPU can process at one time.

4. Components of a Computer System

1. Input Unit: Devices that allow data to be entered into a computer (e.g., keyboard, mouse,
scanner). These convert user actions into signals that the computer can understand.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer, which processes
instructions from programs:

o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs all arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, etc.) and logical operations (comparisons, decision-making).

o Control Unit (CU): Manages the execution of instructions and the flow of data
within the computer.

o Registers: Small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU used to hold data
and instructions temporarily.

3. Output Unit: Devices that present data from the computer to the user (e.g., monitor,
printer). These convert processed data into a human-readable format.
5. Computer Hardware
• Input Devices: Hardware used to input data into a computer (e.g., keyboard, mouse,
microphone). These translate human actions into data signals.

• Output Devices: Hardware used to output data from a computer (e.g., monitor, printer,
speakers). These translate data signals into a format understandable by humans.
• Storage Devices: Hardware used to store data permanently or temporarily (e.g., hard
drives, USB drives, CDs/DVDs). These devices retain data for future retrieval and use.

6. Memory Types
• Primary Memory (RAM): Temporary storage used by the CPU to store data that is
currently being processed. Data is lost when the computer is turned off.

• Secondary Memory: Permanent storage used to hold data long-term (e.g., hard disk,
SSD). Data is retained even when the computer is turned off.

• Cache Memory: A small, high-speed memory located close to the CPU, used to store
frequently accessed data to speed up processing.

• Registers: Very fast, small memory locations within the CPU used to hold data and
instructions temporarily during processing.

• ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that is used to store firmware

(software permanently programmed into the hardware). Data in ROM is not lost when the
computer is turned off.

7. Types of Computers
1. Analog Computers: Computers that process continuous data (e.g., thermometers). These
are used for specific applications like scientific experiments.
2. Digital Computers: Computers that process discrete data (e.g., laptops, desktops). These
are the most common type, used for general purposes.

3. Hybrid Computers: Computers that combine features of both analog and digital
computers. These are used in specialized applications like medical equipment.

By Size:

• Supercomputers: Extremely powerful computers used for complex simulations and

calculations (e.g., weather forecasting, scientific research).

• Mainframes: Large, powerful computers used to manage large amounts of data, often
used by banks and governments.
 • Minicomputers: Medium-sized computers that support multiple users simultaneously,
used in smaller organizations.

• Workstations: High-performance computers used for technical and scientific

applications (e.g., graphic design, engineering).

• Personal Computers: General-purpose computers used by individuals for everyday tasks

(e.g., desktops, laptops).

8. Virtualization
• Definition: The process of running multiple virtual environments on a single physical
machine. This allows for more efficient use of hardware resources.

• Benefits: Virtualization can lead to cost savings, efficient use of hardware, and greater
scalability of IT infrastructure.

• Types: There are various types of virtualizations, including server virtualization (running
multiple servers on one physical server), network virtualization (managing network
resources as virtual resources), storage virtualization (combining multiple storage devices
into a single virtual storage unit), and desktop virtualization (running multiple desktop
environments on one physical machine).

9. Protocols and Standards

• Protocols: Sets of rules that define how data is transmitted and received over a network
(e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP). These ensure that devices can communicate effectively.

• Standards: Guidelines that ensure compatibility and interoperability between different

hardware and software (e.g., ASCII, Unicode, MPEG).

• Examples:
o HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for web communication, defining
how messages are formatted and transmitted.

o TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): Suite of protocols that

governs how data is transmitted over the internet.

o XML (extensible Markup Language): A standard for encoding documents in a

format that is both human-readable and machine-readable.

o RSS (Really Simple Syndication): A web feed that allows users to access updates
to online content in a standardized format.
10. Brief History of Computers
• Ancient Times: Early humans used fingers, stones, and sticks for counting.

• Roman Empire: The abacus was used for calculations.

• 1600s: John Napier invented Napier’s Bones, a manual calculating device using
logarithms.

• 1621: William Oughtred invented the slide rule, an analog device used for multiplication
and division.

• 1642: Blaise Pascal invented the Pascaline, a mechanical calculator capable of

performing addition and subtraction.

• 1673: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed the Leibniz Wheel, a mechanical device for
addition, subtraction, and multiplication.

• 1725: Basile Bouchon invented the Bouchon Loom, which used punched paper to control
a loom for weaving patterns.

• 1728: Falcon Loom, an improvement of Bouchon's loom, used punched cards.

11. Hardware Components in Detail

• Motherboard: The main circuit board that connects all components of the computer. It
houses the CPU, RAM, and other essential components.
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory used for storing data that is
currently being processed. It provides fast access to data but loses its contents when the
computer is turned off.

• Power Supply: Converts electricity from an outlet into a usable form for the computer's
internal components.

• Cooling System: Prevents the computer from overheating by dissipating heat generated
by components.

• Hard Drive: Permanent storage device used to store data and programs.

• Bus: A data communication pathway that allows different components of the computer to
communicate with each other.
12. Software Components
• Applications: These are software programs designed to perform specific tasks for users,
such as word processing (Microsoft Word), spreadsheets (Microsoft Excel), and web
browsing (Google Chrome).

• Operating System (OS): The OS manages hardware and software resources, providing
services for application programs. Examples include Windows, macOS, and Linux.

• API (Application Programming Interface): A set of routines and protocols that allow
different software applications to communicate with each other.

• File Management: The OS handles organizing, storing, retrieving, naming, sharing, and
protecting files on a storage device.

• I/O Management (Input/Output Management): The OS controls the operations of

input and output devices.

• Kernel: The core part of the OS that manages system resources, including memory, CPU
time, and device management.

13. Types of Memory

• SRAM (Static RAM): A type of memory that is faster and more expensive than DRAM.
It's used for cache memory in the CPU.

• DRAM (Dynamic RAM): A type of memory that is slower and cheaper than SRAM. It's
used for the main memory in computers.

• ROM Types:

o PROM (Programmable ROM): Can be programmed once after manufacturing.

o EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased by exposing it to UV
light and then reprogrammed.

o EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased and

reprogrammed using electrical charge.

o Flash Memory: A type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in

blocks. It's commonly used in USB drives and memory cards.
14. Communication Components
• Modem: A device that modulates and demodulates signals for internet access.

• NIC (Network Interface Card): A hardware component that connects a computer to a

network.

• Channels:

o Wired: Includes Ethernet cables and fiber optics, providing reliable and high-
speed connections.

o Wireless: Includes Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks, providing flexibility

and mobility in network connections.

15. Types of Storage Devices

• Magnetic Disk: Traditional hard drives that use magnetic storage to write and retrieve
data.
• Optical Disk: Includes CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs, which use lasers to read and write
data.

• Solid State Drives (SSD): Faster and more reliable than magnetic disks, using flash
memory to store data.

• Flash Drives: Portable storage devices that use flash memory, commonly referred to as
USB drives.