Human-Computer Interaction

UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION

Human computer interaction (HCI), alternatively man machine interaction (MMI) or

computer human interaction (CHI) is the study of interaction between people (users) and
computers.

With today's technology and tools, and our motivation to create really effective and
usable interfaces and screens, why do we continue to produce systems that are inefficient
and confusing or, at worst, just plain unusable? Is it because:
1. We don't care?
2. We don't possess common sense?
3. We don't have the time?
4. We still don't know what really makes good design?

DEFINITION

Human-computer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and

implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of
major phenomena surrounding them."

GOALS

A basic goal of HCI is

to improve the interactions between users and computers
by making computers more usable and receptive to the user's needs.
A long term goal of HCI is
to design systems that minimize the barrier between the human's cognitive
model of what they want
to accomplish and the computer's understanding of the user's task

WHY IS HCI IMPORTANT

User-centered design is getting a crucial role!

It is getting more important today to increase competitiveness via HCI studies (Norman,
1990)
High-cost e-transformation investments
Users lose time with badly designed products and services
Users even give up using bad interface
Ineffective allocation of resources
DEFINING THE USER INTERFACE

User interface, design is a subset of a field of study called human-computer interaction

(HCI).
Human-computer interaction is the study, planning, and design of how people and
computers work together so that
a person's needs are satisfied in the most effective way.
HCI designers must consider a variety of factors:
what people want and expect, physical limitations and abilities people possess,
--how information processing systems work,
what people find enjoyable and attractive.
Technical characteristics and limitations of the computer hardware and software
must also be considered.

The user interface is to

the part of a computer and its software that people can see, hear, touch, talk
to, or otherwise understand or direct.

The user interface has essentially two components: input and output.

Input is how a person communicates his / her needs to the computer.

Some common input components are the keyboard, mouse, trackball,
one's finger, and one's voice.

Output is how the computer conveys the results of its computations and
requirements to the user.
Today, the most common computer output mechanism is the display
screen, followed by mechanisms that take advantage of a person's auditory
capabilities: voice and sound.

The use of the human senses of smell and touch output in interface design still
remain largely unexplored.

Proper interface design will provide a mix of well-designed input and output
mechanisms that satisfy the user's needs, capabilities, and limitations in the most
effective way possible.

The best interface is one that it not noticed, one that permits the user to focus on the
information and task at hand, not the mechanisms used to present the information and
perform the task.
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD DESIGN

With today's technology and tools, and our motivation to create really effective and usable
interfaces and screens, why do we continue to produce systems that are inefficient and
confusing or, at worst, just plain unusable? Is it because:
We don't care?
We don't possess common sense?
We don't have the time?
We still don't know what really makes good design?
But we never seem to have time to find out what makes good design, nor to properly
apply it. After all, many of us have other things to do in addition to designing interfaces
and screens.

So we take our best shot given the workload and time constraints imposed upon us. The
result, too often, is woefully inadequate.
Interface and screen design were really a matter of common sense, we developers would
have been producing almost identical screens for representing the real world.

Closed door with complete wood

suggestion : glass door

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE USER INTERFACE

A well-designed interface and screen is terribly important to our users. It is their

window to view the capabilities of the system.

It is also the vehicle through which many critical tasks are presented. These tasks often
have a direct impact on an organization's relations with its customers, and its profitability.

A screen's layout and appearance affect a person in a variety of ways. If they are
confusing and inefficient, people will have greater difficulty in doing their jobs and will
make more mistakes.

Poor design may even chase some people away from a system permanently. It can also
lead to aggravation, frustration, and increased stress.

The Benefits of Good Design

Poor clarity forced screen users to spend one extra second per screen.
Almost one additional year would be required to process all screens.
Twenty extra seconds in screen usage time adds an additional 14 person years.
 The benefits of a well designed screen have also been under experimental scrutiny for
many years.
One researcher, for example, attempted to improve screen clarity and
readability by making screens less crowded.
Separate items, which had been combined on the same display line to
conserve space, were placed on separate lines instead.
The result screen users were about 20 percent more productive with the
less crowded version.

Proper formatting of information on screens does have a significant positive effect on

performance.
In recent years, the productivity benefits of well-designed Web pages
have also been scrutinized.

Training costs are lowered because training time is reduced.

support line costs are lowered because fewer assist calls are necessary.

Employee satisfaction is increased because aggravation and frustration are reduced.

Ultimately, that an organization's customers benefit because of the improved service they
receive.

Identifying and resolving problems during the design and development process also has
significant economic benefits

How many screens are used each day in our technological world?

How many screens are used each day in your organization? Thousands? Millions?

Imagine the possible savings. Proper screen design might also, of course, lower the costs
of replacing "broken" PCs.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERFACE

The need for people to communicate with each other has existed since we first walked
upon this planet.

The lowest and most common level of communication modes we share are movements
and gestures.

Movements and gestures are language independent, that is, they permit people who do
not speak the same language to deal with one another.
 The next higher level, in terms of universality and complexity, is spoken language.

Most people can speak one language, some two or more. A spoken language is a very
efficient mode of communication if both parties to the communication understand it.

At the third and highest level of complexity is written language. While most people
speak, not all can write.

But for those who can, writing is still nowhere near as efficient a means .of
communication as speaking.

In modem times, we have the typewriter, another step upward in communication

complexity.

Significantly fewer people type than write. (While a practiced typist can find typing
faster and more efficient than handwriting, the unskilled may not find this the case.)

Spoken language, however, is still more efficient than typing, regardless' of typing skill
level.

Through its first few decades, a computer's ability to deal with human communication
was inversely related to what was easy for people to do.

-- The computer demanded rigid, typed input through a keyboard; people

responded slowly using this device and with varying degrees of skill.
-- The human-computer dialog reflected the computer's preferences,
consisting of one style or a combination of styles using keyboards,
commonly referred to as Command Language, Question and Answer, Menu
selection, Function Key Selection, and Form Fill-In.

Throughout the computer's history, designers have been developing, with varying degrees
of success, other human-computer interaction methods that utilize more general,
widespread, and easier-to-learn capabilities: voice and handwriting.
--Systems that recognize human speech and handwriting now exist, although they
still lack the universality and richness of typed input.

INTRODUCTION OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

The Xerox systems, Altus and STAR, introduced the mouse and pointing and
selecting as the primary human-computer communication method.

The user simply pointed at the screen, using the mouse as an intermediary.

These systems also introduced the graphical user interface as we know it a new
concept was born, revolutionizing the human-computer interface.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SCREEN DESIGN

While developers have been designing screens since a cathode ray tube display was first
attached to a computer, more widespread interest in the application of good design
principles to screens did not begin to emerge until the early 1970s, when IBM introduced
its 3270 cathode ray tube text-based terminal.

A 1970s screen often resembled the one pictured in Figure.

It usually consisted of many fields (more than are illustrated here) with very cryptic and
often unintelligible captions.

It was visually cluttered, and often possessed a command field that challenged the
user to remember what had to be keyed into it.

Ambiguous messages often required referral to a manual to interpret.

Effectively using this kind of screen required a great deal of practice and patience.

Most early screens were monochromatic, typically presenting green text on black
backgrounds.

At the turn of the decade guidelines for text-based screen design were finally made
widely available and many screens began to take on a much less cluttered look
through concepts such as grouping and alignment of elements, as illustrated in Figure
1.2.

User memory was supported by providing clear and meaningful field captions and by
listing commands on the screen, and enabling them to be applied, through function
keys. Messages also became clearer.
 These screens were not entirely clutter-free, however. Instructions and reminders to
the user had to be inscribed on the screen in the form of prompts or completion aids
such as the codes PR and Sc.

Not all 1980s screens looked like this, however. In the 1980s, 1970s-type screens
were still being designed, and many still reside in systems today.

The advent of graphics yielded another milestone in the evolution of screen design, as
illustrated in Figure above

While some basic "design principles did not change, groupings and alignment, for
example,
Borders were made available to visually enhance groupings, and buttons and menus for
implementing commands replaced function keys.
 Multiple properties of elements were also provided, including many
different font sizes and styles, line thicknesses, and colors.

The entry field was supplemented by a multitude of other kinds of

controls, including list boxes, drop-down combination boxes, spin boxes,
and so forth.

These new controls were much more effective in supporting a person's

memory, now simply allowing for selection from a list instead of
requiring a remembered key entry.

Completion aids disappeared from screens, replaced by one of the new listing
controls.
Screens could also be simplified, the much more powerful
computers being able to quickly present a new screen.

In the 1990s, our knowledge concerning what makes effective screen

design continued to expand. Coupled with ever-improving technology,
the result was even greater improvements in the user-computer screen
interface as the new century dawned.

1 : Usability of Interactive System

In this Introduction , we will learn about “Usability of Interactive System”. This will be
divided into four parts : “Introduction”, “Usability Goals and Measures”, “Usability
Motivations” and “Universal Ability”. So, let’s get started.
So, what is “Human Computer Interaction” (HCI)?
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) is the discipline related to the design, evaluation, and
implementation of interactive computer systems for use by humans, and studies of the
phenomena associated with it. – ACM SIGCHI
The focuses on Human-Computer Interaction are design and evaluation of user
interface. User interface is part of interactive computer system that allows human to interact
with computer.
The usability is a set of attributes that bear on the effort needed for use, and on the individual
assessment of such use, by a stated or implied set of users. There are four attributes of the
usability : understandability, Learn ability, Operability, and Attractiveness. The usability
goals focus on effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction. And there are five usability
measures (5 human factors central to community evaluation) : Time to learn, Speed of
performance, Rate of errors by users, Retention over time, Subjective satisfaction.
Usability Motivations
There are so many interfaces are poorly designed and this is true across domains, such as :
  Life-critical systems (Air traffic control, nuclear reactors, power utilities, police & fire
dispatch systems, medical equipments)
 Industrial and commercial systems (Banking, insurance, order entry, inventory
management, reservation, billing, and point-of-sales systems)
 Office, Home and Entertainment Applications (Word processing, electronic mail,
computer conferencing, and video game systems, educational packages, search
engines, mobile device,)
 Exploratory, Creative, and Cooperative System (Web browsing, search engines, artist
toolkits, architectural design, software development, music composition, and
scientific modeling)
 Social – technical System (Voting, health support, identity verification, crime
reporting)
Universal Usability
Diversity of human abilities, backgrounds, motivations, personalities, cultures, and work
styles is a challange for interface designers. Understanding of differences between users is
vital for participation by broadest set of users. Mobile device use has begun to require for
designs that are universal usable. Rethinking interface designs for different situations often
results in a better product for all users. The rethinking covers considerations for users with
disabilities, older adults, young users, etc and discussion for hardware and software diversity.

Interactive System Design

The objective of this chapter is to learn all the aspects of design and development of
interactive systems, which are now an important part of our lives. The design and usability of
these systems leaves an effect on the quality of people’s relationship to technology. Web
applications, games, embedded devices, etc., are all a part of this system, which has become
an integral part of our lives. Let us now discuss on some major components of this system.

Concept of Usability Engineering

Usability Engineering is a method in the progress of software and systems, which includes
user contribution from the inception of the process and assures the effectiveness of the
product through the use of a usability requirement and metrics.

It thus refers to the Usability Function features of the entire process of abstracting,
implementing & testing hardware and software products. Requirements gathering stage to
installation, marketing and testing of products, all fall in this process.

Goals of Usability Engineering

 Effective to use − Functional

 Efficient to use − Efficient
 Error free in use − Safe
 Easy to use − Friendly
 Enjoyable in use − Delightful Experience
Usability

Usability has three components − effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction, using which,
users accomplish their goals in particular environments. Let us look in brief about these
components.

 Effectiveness − The completeness with which users achieve their goals.

 Efficiency − The competence used in using the resources to effectively achieve the
goals.
 Satisfaction − The ease of the work system to its users.

Usability Study

The methodical study on the interaction between people, products, and environment based on
experimental assessment. Example: Psychology, Behavioral Science, etc.

Usability Testing

The scientific evaluation of the stated usability parameters as per the user’s requirements,
competences, prospects, safety and satisfaction is known as usability testing.

Acceptance Testing

Acceptance testing also known as User Acceptance Testing (UAT), is a testing procedure that
is performed by the users as a final checkpoint before signing off from a vendor. Let us take
an example of the handheld barcode scanner.

Let us assume that a supermarket has bought barcode scanners from a vendor. The
supermarket gathers a team of counter employees and make them test the device in a mock
store setting. By this procedure, the users would determine if the product is acceptable for
their needs. It is required that the user acceptance testing "pass" before they receive the final
product from the vendor.

Software Tools

A software tool is a programmatic software used to create, maintain, or otherwise support

other programs and applications. Some of the commonly used software tools in HCI are as
follows −

 Specification Methods − The methods used to specify the GUI. Even though these
are lengthy and ambiguous methods, they are easy to understand.
 Grammars − Written Instructions or Expressions that a program would understand.
They provide confirmations for completeness and correctness.
 Transition Diagram − Set of nodes and links that can be displayed in text, link
frequency, state diagram, etc. They are difficult in evaluating usability, visibility,
modularity and synchronization.
 Statecharts − Chart methods developed for simultaneous user activities and external
actions. They provide link-specification with interface building tools.
 Interface Building Tools − Design methods that help in designing command
languages, data-entry structures, and widgets.
  Interface Mockup Tools − Tools to develop a quick sketch of GUI. E.g., Microsoft
Visio, Visual Studio .Net, etc.
 Software Engineering Tools − Extensive programming tools to provide user
interface management system.
 Evaluation Tools − Tools to evaluate the correctness and completeness of programs.

HCI and Software Engineering

Software engineering is the study of designing, development and preservation of software. It

comes in contact with HCI to make the man and machine interaction more vibrant and
interactive.

Let us see the following model in software engineering for interactive designing.

The Waterfall Method

Interactive System Design

The uni-directional movement of the waterfall model of Software Engineering shows that
every phase depends on the preceding phase and not vice-versa. However, this model is not
suitable for the interactive system design.
The interactive system design shows that every phase depends on each other to serve the
purpose of designing and product creation. It is a continuous process as there is so much to
know and users keep changing all the time. An interactive system designer should recognize
this diversity.

Prototyping

Prototyping is another type of software engineering models that can have a complete range of
functionalities of the projected system.

In HCI, prototyping is a trial and partial design that helps users in testing design ideas
without executing a complete system.

Example of a prototype can be Sketches. Sketches of interactive design can later be produced
into graphical interface. See the following diagram.

The above diagram can be considered as a Low Fidelity Prototype as it uses manual
procedures like sketching in a paper.

A Medium Fidelity Prototype involves some but not all procedures of the system. E.g., first
screen of a GUI.

Finally, a Hi Fidelity Prototype simulates all the functionalities of the system in a design.
This prototype requires, time, money and work force.

User Centered Design (UCD)

The process of collecting feedback from users to improve the design is known as user
centered design or UCD.

UCD Drawbacks

 Passive user involvement.

 User’s perception about the new interface may be inappropriate.
 Designers may ask incorrect questions to users.

Interactive System Design Life Cycle (ISLC)

The stages in the following diagram are repeated until the solution is reached.

Diagram

GUI Design & Aesthetics

Graphic User Interface (GUI) is the interface from where a user can operate programs,
applications or devices in a computer system. This is where the icons, menus, widgets, labels
exist for the users to access.

It is significant that everything in the GUI is arranged in a way that is recognizable and
pleasing to the eye, which shows the aesthetic sense of the GUI designer. GUI aesthetics
provides a character and identity to any product.

HCI in Indian Industries

For the past couple of years, majority IT companies in India are hiring designers for HCI
related activities. Even multi-national companies started hiring for HCI from India as Indian
designers have proven their capabilities in architectural, visual and interaction designs. Thus,
Indian HCI designers are not only making a mark in the country, but also abroad.

The profession has boomed in the last decade even when the usability has been there forever.
And since new products are developed frequently, the durability prognosis also looks great.

As per an estimation made on usability specialists, there are mere 1,000 experts in India. The
overall requirement is around 60,000. Out of all the designers working in the country, HCI
designers count for approximately 2.77%.

HCI Analogy

Let us take a known analogy that can be understood by everyone. A film director is a person
who with his/her experience can work on script writing, acting, editing, and cinematography.
He/She can be considered as the only person accountable for all the creative phases of the
film.

Similarly, HCI can be considered as the film director whose job is part creative and part
technical. An HCI designer have substantial understanding of all areas of designing. The
following diagram depicts the analogy −

Managing Design Processes

Design is a creative activity whose aim is to establish the multi-faceted qualities of objects,
processes, services and their systems in whole life cycles and it’s inherently creative and
unpredictable.
Interactive system designers must blend knowledge of technical feasibility with a mystical
esthetic sense of what attracts users. One Method to Characterize design (Rosson and Carrol,
2002) is:

 Design is a process.
 The design process is nonhierarchical.
 The process is radically transformational.
 Design intrinsically involves the discovery of new goals.
The Four Pillars

The Four Pillars of Design

1. User Interface Requirements
– Soliciting and clearly specifying user requirements is a major key to success in any
development activity
– Laying out the user-interface requirements is part of the overall requirements development
and management process
– User interface requirements describe system behavior
2. Guidelines documents and processes
Each project has different needs, but guidelines should be considered for:
1. Words, icons, and graphics
2. Screen-layout issues
3. Input and output devices
4. Action sequences
5. Training
3. User-Interface Software Tools
One difficulty in designing interactive systems is that customers and users may not have a
clear idea of what the system will look like when it is done. Since interactive systems are
novel in many situation, user may not realize the implications of design decisions.
unfortunately, it is difficult, costly, and time-consuming to make major changes to systems
once those systems have been implemented.

4. Expert Reviews and Usability Testing

In addition to a variety of expert review methods, test with the intended users, surveys, and
automated analysis tools are proving to be valuable.

DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGIES

There are dozens of advertised development methods, one of them is The Rapid Contextual
Design Method which involves the following steps:

 Contextual Inquiry
 Interpretation sessions and work modeling
 Model Consolidation and affinity diagram building
 Persona Development
 Visioning
  Storyboarding
 User environment design
 Interviews and evaluations with paper prototypes and mock-ups.

ETNOGRAPHIC OBSERVATION

1. Preparation : Understand organization policies and work culture.

2. Field Study : Observe/interview users in their workplace and collect some datas from
them.
3. Analysis : Compile the collected data in numerical, textual, and multimedia databases.
4. Reporting : Consider multiple audiences and goals and prepare a report and present
the findings.

PARTICIPATORY DESIGN

More user involvement brings (Advantages) :

 More accurate information about tasks.

 More opportunity for users to influence design decisions.
 A sense of participation that builds users’ ego investment in successful
implementation.

On the negative side, extensive user involvement may (Disadvantages) :

 Be more costly.
 Lengthen the implementation period.
 Build antagonism with people not involved or whose suggestions rejected.
 Force designers to compromise their design to satisfy incompetent participants.