TOPIC 5: COMPUTER HARDWARE

Introduction:
Computer hardware refers to the physical/tangible parts of a computer that can
be seen and touched.
All computer hardware is majorly divided into five broad categories which include:
 Input devices
 Output devices
 Storage devices
 Processing devices
 Communication devices
Note:
 Computer hardware can be broadly grouped into internal and external
computer hardware.
 Peripheral devices are any external devices that can be
connected/attached to the system unit (computer).

Internal Hardware Examples External Hardware Examples
 CPU  eGPU
 Drive (e.g. CD drive, DVD drive,  Flash drive
floppy drive, hard drive, and  Flat-panel, Monitor, and LCD
SSD).  Hard Drive
 Fan (heat sink)  Headphones
 Modem  Joystick
 Motherboard  Keyboard
 Network card  Mouse
 Power supply  Printer
 RAM  Projector
 Sound card  Scanner
 Video card  Speakers
 USB drive
Sub-Topic: Computer Input Devices
Input devices are hardware components that allow a user to enter data and
instructions into a computer
Input is any data or instructions you enter into the computer with a special input
device.
The two types of input are: data and commands/instructions
The most common input devices include the following:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
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  Light Pen
 Digital Cameras
 Voice Recognition Equipment
 Microphone
 Scanner
 Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
 Optical character recognition (OCR)
 Optical Bar Code Reader (OBR Reader)
 TouchPad
 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) Reader
 MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) Device
 Webcam
 Biometric Device

Mouse
 A mouse is a pointing device that controls the movement of the cursor on a
display screen.
 As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the
same direction.
 In particular, the mouse is more important for graphical user interfaces.

Advantages of using a computer mouse

 It does not take time to master the techniques of using the mouse.
 Cursor movements across the screen are done quickly
 It can be used to draw shapes under graphics and drawing programs
 It fits comfortably below the palm and its wheel below fastens movements
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  The mouse is easy to use even for beginners
 It can be operated by one hand

Disadvantages of using a computer mouse

 Requires empty desk space to move it about
 You need to move a hand from the key board to move the pointer or
execute a command given
 It‘s must be cleaned regularly to remove dust and dirt from the ball
mechanism
 It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse
 Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard
 A mouse is not accurate enough when it comes to drawings that require
high precision
 It needs some practice in order to control a mouse properly
 It needs a flat surface to operate

Functions of a mouse:
 Pointing: this means positioning a pointer over an item
 Clicking/left-clicking: this means pressing and releasing the primary button
(usually left-click button) one time. Used when selecting items on your
screen or when executing a command with a command button.
 Double clicking: this means to press and release the primary button
(usually left-click button) twice in a quick succession. Used to open items
(files, folders and programs)
 Dragging: this means hold down the primary button (usually left-click
button), move the mouse/item to the desired place and release the button.
Used when moving items on the screen.
 Right click: this means pressing and releasing the secondary button
(usually right-click button) one time to display a popup menu with options.
Used when displaying additional options possible on an item/situation.
 Scrolling: this means to roll the mouse wheel forward or backward. Used
when scrolling up and down lines/pages.

Steps of holding and moving the mouse:

 Place mouse beside the keyboard on a flat clean surface
 Hold the mouse gently and place the index finger on the primary button
(usually left-click button) and thumb on the side
 Slide the mouse gently in any direction to move it (notice the cursor moving
on the screen)

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Steps of Clicking/left-clicking
 Position the pointer over an item
 Press once and release the primary button (usually left-click button)
 This selects a file/folder/program or executes a command

Steps of Double clicking

 Position the pointer over an item
 Press twice in quick succession and release the primary button (usually
left-click button)
 This opens a file/folder/program

Steps of dragging:
 Position the pointer over an item
 Press and hold down the primary button (usually left-click button)
 move the mouse to the desired place, release the button
 This moves a file/folder/program to a desired place

Steps of Right clicking

 Position the pointer over an item or in space.
 Press once and release the secondary button (usually right-click button)
 This displays a popup menu with options

Types of Mice
 Mechanical mouse: a mechanical mouse has a rubber ball on the
underside to detect the movements of the mouse.
 Optical mouse; this mouse uses light on the underside to detect the
mouse‘s movements.
 Trackball mouse; is a stationery pointing device with a ball mechanism on
the top, used to detect the movements of the finger.
 Touchpad mouse; is a small, flat, rectangular pointing device that is
sensitive to pressure and motion from the finger(s).
 Presentation Mouse; before the presentation mouse, a separate laser
pointer and mouse were needed during presentation. The presentation
mouse combines a mouse and laser pointer together.
 Stylus Mouse; This is a cross in between a pen and mouse. The stylus
mouse is about the size of a very fat brush, typically used for freehand
drawing with computers.
 Gaming Mouse; While a typical mouse usually only have 3 buttons, a
gaming mouse is characterized by having many buttons and touting itself to
be accurate. These extra buttons are often programmable to do various
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 things, mostly for the purpose of gaming.
 Laser mouse; the laser mouse is also a kind of optical mouse, and the
working principals are the same. It uses a laser beam instead of an LED to
sense the movement.
 Wireless Mouse; Wireless mouse uses radio frequency (RF) to
communicate with the computer.

Wireless Mouse Mechanical Mouse Gaming Mouse Trackball Mouse

Optical Mouse Laser Mouse Stylus Mouse Presentation Mou

se

Major problems that often affect the proper functioning of the mouse
 Dirt disrupts motion of the ball
 Nature of the surface-not too rough or too smooth
 Disconnection of the chord in case the mouse falls on humps
 Connecting the mouse to the system unit one must be very careful to follow
the directions of the pins

Solutions to the problems

 Cleaning the ball and rollers regularly
 Providing the correct roll surface or mouse pad
 Avoid mouse falling or hanging on the chord by tying twists on both the
mouse and keyboard

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Keyboard
The keyboard is the primary input and control device of a computer. Data and
commands are entered into a computer via the keyboard.

Keyboard Layout
A keyboard layout is the mechanical and visual arrangement of keys and key
labels respectively on a keyboard.
QWERTY QWERTZ

AZERTY DVORAK

Note:
 DVORAK commonly used keys are on the home row. Least used keys are
on the bottom row.
 DVORAK keyboard is more efficient and can increase typing speed.
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  The original PC keyboard, with 84 keys; the AT keyboard, also with 84
keys; and the enhanced keyboard, with 101 keys.
 The three differ somewhat in the placement of function keys, the Control
key, the Return key, and the Shift keys.

Advantages of Using a Keyboard

 It‘s not necessary to buy additional input hardware, because most
computer systems are normally supplied with a keyboard.
 Entering data, information and instructions with a keyboard is faster than
using a pointing device.
 They are more reliable and usually produce fewer errors than other input
methods such as voice input and optical character recognition.

Disadvantages of Using A Keyboard

 Using a keyboard requires some practice.
 Keys can easily become faulty because of dust hazard

Sections of the keyboard:

Alphanumeric Keys/ Typewriter area:
 They include letters, numbers, punctuation and symbol keys.
 They are used to type alphabets, numbers, punctuations and other
symbols.
 This is a part that looks like or similar to a typewriter keyboard

Numeric Keys:
 They include numeric 0-9 keys.
 They are used to type numbers.
 This is similar to a calculator and can be utilized as an adding machine
once the num lock (number lock) is off. It is usually located on the right side
of the keyboard.

Special keys:
 On a computer keyboard, there are keys which are not found on a
typewriter keyboard.
 These keys are the ones called special keys. They include; Alt (Alternate)
and Ctrl (Control).

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Cursor control keys:
 A cursor is a blinking bar on the screen which indicates where text should
be.
 When the cursor fails to come, you cannot enter data in a computer.
 Cursor control keys include: Home, End, Page down, Page up, Insert, End,
Arrow/Movement keys which drive the cursor across the screen.

Function Keys:
 These are keys on a computer keyboard used for particular functions.
 They are near the top of a keyboard marked F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F7, F8,
F9, F10, F11 and F12
 They are used to perform special functions in different computer programs

Different Types of Computer Keyboards

Ergonomic Keyboard
 The ergonomic keyboard has a
space existing between the two
sets of keys.
 The contoured shape of this
keyboard allows users to place
their hands in the natural
position to type.
 Ergonomic keyboard is easier
and less stressful for the wrist.
Personal Systems (PS/2)
Keyboard
 Most old computers come with
standard PS/2 connector,
rather than USB ports.
 Keyboards used for these
computers usually have a
round pin that fits into the PS/2
keyboard jack at the back of
the computer system unit.
Mini PS/2 Keyboard

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  MINI PS/2 keyboards are very
small in size and are
compatible with the PS/2
computers.
 These keyboards resemble
laptop keyboards and are
square in shape.
 This keyboard is composed of
fewer key and does not have a
detached numeric keypad.
Multimedia Keyboard
 The multimedia keyboard is
specially designed for people
who do multimedia designing.
 This keyboard is just like the
standard keyboard, but
composed of additional keys
for multimedia purposes such
as volume control and mute
buttons.
Internet Keyboard
 Internet keyboards are
designed for wider range of
multimedia applications and
intense Internet users.
 The special keys included in
this keyboard are the home
key, back and forward key, e-
mail launch key, and browser
launch key etc.
 These keys carry out the same
functionality as the buttons on
the webpage.
Wireless Keyboard
 It operates without a wired
connection to the system unit.
 The wireless keyboards are
also referred as cordless
keyboards.
 These keyboards require
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 batteries and a Bluetooth
connection to the computer.
Gaming Keyboard
 Gaming keyboards designed
for gamers.
 These keyboards are
composed of particular gaming
keys/controls. ?They are
available in wired and wireless.

Membrane Keyboard
 The keys in this keyboard are
non-moving pressure-sensitive
keys.
 The keys are so close, and it‘s
impossible to spill liquids into
the keyboard.
 The keys are covered by a
transparent, plastic shell.
 Membrane keyboards are also
used in mobile phones and old
landline phones.
Touch Screen Keyboards
 Is a visual keyboard on your
display screen that can be
used in place of a physical
keyboard.
 Commonly used on smart
phones, tablets, phablets and
the most recent advances in
computers.

Note:
Function keys and their functions
F1  Used as the help key in almost every program.
 Opens a help screen when this key is pressed.
 Enter BIOS setup.
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F2  In Microsoft Windows, renames a highlighted icon, file,
or folder in all versions of Windows.
 In Microsoft Excel, edits the active cell.
 Quickly rename a selected file or folder.
 Enter BIOS setup.
F3  Opens a search feature for many programs, including Microsoft
Windows when at the Windows desktop.
 In some programs, after an initial search is performed, F3 will
find the next search value.
 In Windows Explorer, starts the search function.
F4  Open the address bar in Windows Explorer and Internet
Explorer.
 Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+).
F5  In all modern Internet browsers, pressing F5 refreshes or
reloads the page or document window.
 Refresh the list of contents in a folder.
 Open the find, replace, and go to window in Microsoft Word.
 Starts a slideshow in PowerPoint.
F6  Move the cursor to the address bar in Internet Explorer, Mozilla
Firefox, and most other Internet browsers.
 Reduce laptop speaker volume (on some laptops).
F7  Commonly used to spell check and grammar check a document
in Microsoft programs such as Microsoft Word, Outlook, etc.
 Turns on Caret Browsing in Mozilla Firefox.
 Increase laptop speaker volume (on some laptops).
F8  Function key used to enter the Windows startup menu.
 Commonly used to access Windows Safe Mode.
 Used by some computers to access the Windows recovery
system, but may require a Windows installation CD.
F9  Refresh document in Microsoft Word.
 Send and receive e-mail in Microsoft Outlook.
F10  In Microsoft Windows, activates the menu bar of an open
application.
 Enter BIOS setup on some computers.
 Increase laptop screen brightness (on some laptops).
F11  Enter and exit full screen mode in all modern Internet browsers.
F12  Open the Save as window in Microsoft Word.
 Access the list of bootable devices on a computer at startup,
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 allowing you to select a different device to boot from (e.g., hard
drive, CD or DVD drive, floppy drive, USB drive, and network).
Keyboard keys and their functions:
Alt Key  A computer key that you press together
with another key so that the other key does
something different from what it usually
does.
Arrow Keys  Arrow Keys (up, down, left, or right arrow)
(up, down, left, or right Used for moving the cursor up, down, left,
arrow) or right arrow.
Backspace Key  Rubs all characters to the left of the cursor.
Caps Lock  A key on a computer keyboard that makes
all the keys produce capital letters.
Control Key  Used in combination with other keys for
doing particular operations. This key is
usually marked ‗Ctrl‘.
Delete Key  Rubs all characters to the right. This key is
sometimes referred to as del.
Enter Key  Makes the computer perform an action or
move the cursor to a new line of writing.
Escape Key  Allows someone to stop an action, leave a
program, or return to a previous menu.
This key is usually marked ‗Esc‘.
Function Key  A special button on a computer keyboard
that is used for a particular operation in a
program.
 The keys near the top of a keyboard
marked ‗F1‘ to ‗F12‘ are function keys.
Num Lock  Pressed to make the number keys below it
enter numbers and not be used for moving
up and down a document.
Shift Key  The key that you press on a computer
keyboard when you want to write a capital
letter or a symbol.
Space Bar  The long narrow bar at the front of a
computer keyboard that you press to make
a space between characters when you are
typing.
Tab key  A tab key creates bigger space between
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 characters during typing.
Insert  Pressing this key during typing switches
between two modes:
 Mode 1: What you type appears before the
cursor and pushes any text that comes
after it to the right.
 Mode 2: Any text that you type
successively replaces any text that is to
the right of the cursor.
Scroll Lock  Used in conjunction with the arrow keys to
scroll through the contents of a window or
document
Print Screen  Pressing the Print Screen key captures an
image of your entire screen.

Keyboard Shortcuts
Keyboard shortcuts are keys or combinations of keys that provide an alternative
way to do something that you‘d typically do with a mouse.

Shortcut Function
Alt+F File menu options in current program.
Alt+E Edit options in current program.
Alt+Tab Switch between open programs.
F1 View help information
F2 Rename a selected file.
F5 Refresh the current program window.
Ctrl+N Create a new or blank document, open a new tab in most
browsers.
Ctrl+A Select all text.
Ctrl+O Open a file in the current software.
Ctrl+B Change selected text to be bold.
Ctrl+I Change selected text to be in italics.
Ctrl+U Change selected text to be underlined.
Ctrl+F Open find window for current document or window.
Ctrl+S Save current document file.
Ctrl+X Cut selected item.
Shift+Del Cut selected item.
Ctrl+C Copy selected item
Ctrl+Ins Copy selected item.
Ctrl+V Paste
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Shift+Ins Paste
Ctrl+Y Redo last action.
Ctrl+Z Undo last action.
Ctrl+K Insert hyperlink for selected text.
Ctrl+P Print the current page or document.
Home Goes to beginning of current line.
Ctrl+Home Goes to beginning of document.
End Goes to end of current line.
Ctrl+End Goes to end of document.
Shift+Home Highlights from current position to beginning of line.
Shift+End Highlights from current position to end of line.
Ctrl+Left arrow Moves one word to the left at a time.
Ctrl+Right arrow Moves one word to the right at a time.
Ctrl+Esc Opens the Start menu.
Ctrl+Shift+Esc Opens Windows Task Manager.
Alt+F4 Close the currently active program.
Alt+Enter Open the properties for the selected item (file, folder, shortcut,

Joy Stick
 This is a lever that moves in all directions and
controls the movement of a pointer or some other
display symbol.
 A joystick is similar to a mouse, except that with a
mouse the cursor stops moving as soon as you stop
moving the mouse.
 With a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the
direction the joystick is pointing.
 Joysticks are used mostly for computer games, but they are also used
occasionally for CAD/CAM systems and other applications.

Advantages
 It allows fast interactions required in most games

Disadvantages
 It is difficult to use a joystick to select objects accurately on the screen

Light Pen
 This is an input device that utilizes a light-
sensitive detector to select objects on a display
screen.
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  A light pen is similar to a mouse, except that with a light pen you can move
the pointer and select objects on the display screen by directly pointing to
the objects with the pen
 It allows the user to point to displayed objects, or draw on the screen, in a
similar way to a touch screen but with greater positional accuracy.

Advantages
 Using a light pen is more direct and precise than using a mouse
 It is convenient for applications with limited desktop space

Disadvantage
 Normally require a specially designed monitor to work with
Digital Cameras
 A digital camera is an electronic device used to
capture and store photographs electronically in a
digital format, instead of using photographic film like
conventional cameras, or recording images in an
analog format to magnetic tape like many video
cameras.
 Modern compact digital cameras are typically
multifunctional, with some devices capable of recording sound and/or video
as well as photographs
 They are largely used in desktop publishing to mix graphics with text

Advantages
 You can instantly see the picture you just took
 You can delete unwanted pictures
 You will not have to buy films again
 They have many advanced features in a small form factor
 You don‗t have to print every picture
 You have complete control of the final print after editing on the computer
 There is no risk of negatives getting lost or scratched
 They can store hundreds of pictures
 Photographic images can be digitized directly without using a scanner

Disadvantages
 Generally higher cost per print although getting cheaper
 More sensitive to shocks and dropping
 Lower quality than film although the gap is closing
 Can be battery hogs
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  Shutter delay is longer on low-end models
 Generally have poor low-light focusing ability
 Digital cameras are normally more expensive than ordinary film cameras

Voice Recognition Equipment

 These provide the computer with the
capability to distinguish spoken words.
 Note that; voice recognition implies only that
the computer can take dictation, not that it
understands what is being said.

Advantages
 No typing of data is necessary
 The system can be used remotely by telephone or by people whose hands
are occupied or disabled.
 Are ideal for blind or visually impaired users
Disadvantages
 Limitation on the size of the computer vocabulary
 Pronunciation differences among individuals
 Computer‗s inability to accept continuous speech
 Error rate is still high at the moment
 Recognition of words is slow
 The system is not suitable for use in noisy places
 The software must be trained to recognize specialist or technical words
 Many people find it difficult to speak in a writing style

Microphone
 This is an input device that allows a user to speak to a
computer to enter data and instructions into the
computer.
 Microphones use a sensor that converts sound into an
electrical signal.

Scanner
 Scanner is an input device used to convert images or text on paper into a
digital/electronic format that can be used by the computer.
 A scanner works by shining a beam of light onto the surface of the object
that you are scanning.
 This light is then reflected back onto a sensor that detects the colour of the
light. This is then used to build up the digital image.
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Note:
 Scanners use special software (Optical Character Recognition software) to
convert the scanned text into text which can be edited with a word
processor.
 However, the text doesn't always get converted very well and you could
end up with a lot of mistakes.

Flatbed Scanners Hand Scanners Sheetfed Scanner

Flatbed Scanners
 Flatbed scanners have a large glass surface and a lid. These scanners
work best with flat objects, such as photos and papers, but you can also
place larger items such as open books onto the scanner bed.
 Some models of flatbed scanner come built in to all-in-one devices, which
function as printers, scanners, copy machines and fax machines.

Hand Scanners
 Hand scanners are small wand-shaped. You use a hand scanner by slowly
dragging it over the entire surface area of the document you want to scan.
 Unlike flatbed scanners, hand scanners allow you to scan items of any
size. they rely on a steady hand and offer lower quality output than a
flatbed.

Sheetfed Scanner
 Sheetfed scanners scan loose papers placed in a tray by pulling them
across a static scanning lens.
 These devices make it easier to scan a large stack of papers than a flatbed
scanner, where you would have to insert and remove each page.

Advantages
 Flatbed scanners are very accurate and can produce reasonably high
quality images
 Any image which is digitized by the scanner can then be included on
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 electronic documents
 Images once digitized can be enhanced with a graphics application
 A scanner with appropriate OCR software can work as an OCR system

Disadvantages
 Scanned images can take up a lot of storage space
 Images lose some quality in the scanning and digitizing process
 The quality of the final image is dependent on the quality of the original
image
 A scanner is best for two dimensional objects only

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is a character recognition system that
uses special ink and characters.
 When a document that contains this ink needs to be read, it passes
through a machine, which magnetizes the ink and then translates the
magnetic information into characters.
 MICR technology is used by banks.
 Numbers and characters found on the bottom of checks (usually containing
the cheque number, sort number, and account number) are printed using
Magnetic Ink.
 To print Magnetic Ink, you need a laser printer that accepts MICR toner.
 MICR provides a secure, high-speed method of scanning and processing
information.

Advantages
 Magnetic ink character recognition is difficult to forge
 Documents can still be read when folded or written on

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Disadvantages
 Magnetic ink character recognition readers and encoders are very
expensive
 The system can only accept a few different character sets
Optical character recognition (OCR)
 These devices read special preprinted characters
and convert them in a form which can be
understood by the computer.
 Examples of them are price tags and utility bills in
super markets

Advantages
 Written data and printed data can be read at the same time
 Hard copies of documents can be read directly into a computer without
retyping
 The characters converted can later be edited by word processing software

Disadvantages
 Optical character recognition readers often do not work well with
handwritten characters or those in unusual fonts
Optical Bar Code Reader (OBR Reader)
 These are photoelectric scanners that translate
vertical zebra stripped marks seen on most
manufactured retail products into digital form
before passing them into the computer for
processing.
 A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or
point-of- sale scanner, is a hand-held or stationary input device used to
capture and read information contained in a bar code
 There are five basic kinds of barcode readers - pen wands, slot scanners,
Charge-Couple Device scanners, image scanners, and laser scanners.

Advantages
 The process of data entry is fast and accurate
 Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods
 No need to write down or key in the name of the item or its actual price

Disadvantages
 Only numbers can be coded
 Bar codes cannot be read directly by people
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  A bar code reader may misread a bar code if there is any dirt or mark on
the code
Touchpad
 This is a Data input device sensitive to
pressure and motion.
 It is a device for pointing (controlling input
positioning) on a computer display
 It is an alternative to the mouse.
 Originally incorporated in laptop computers,
touch pads are also being made for use with desktop computers.

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) Reader

 Is an OMR scanner that works with the
help of OMR software to read the mark of
pencils made on predefined positions on
the OMR sheets such as surveys, tests,
questionnaires, multiple-choice
examination papers in the form of lines or
shaded areas.
 Many OMR devices work with a dedicated
scanner device that shines a beam of
light onto the form paper.
 The contrasting reflection at
predetermined positions on a page is then
used to detect these marked areas because they reflect less light than the
blank areas of the paper.

Advantages
 OMR proves to be highly accurate and is the most recommendable
technique when it comes to interpreting on simple yes or no answers.
 It greatly minimizes the chances of human errors as there is no need to
process the data manually and everything is done by the use of technology.
 It decreases the cost on manpower as everything is done by just the use of
a single computer where even the data can be stored.
 OMR forms are easy to read and extract data from, if good OMR sheet
reader software is being used.

Disadvantages
 If the marks don't fill the space completely, or aren't in a dark enough

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 pencil, they may not be read correctly.
 Only suitable for recording one out of a selection of answers, not suitable
for text input.
 The OMR reader needs the answers to be on the prepared forms which will
all be identical to one another.
 The OMR sheets are subject to man-handling and can be folded and torn
during the complete process. To be read effectively by the scanner it
should be devoid of any worn and torn.

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)

Device
 Is a music industry standard that
enables electronic musical instruments
such as keyboard controllers,
computers, and other electronic
equipment to communicate, control,
and coordinate with each other.

Webcam
 A webcam is a video camera attached to a
computer that transmits images across the
Internet.
 Web cams generates images that can be
accessed by and displayed on the World
Wide Web through a server.
 A webcam is essentially just a camera that is
connected to a computer, either directly or
wirelessly, and gathers a series of images for
remote display elsewhere.

Biometric Device:
 A biometric device is a security identification and authentication device.
 Biometric devices use automated methods to verify and recognize the
identity of a person based on his/her physiological or behavioral
characteristics such as; fingerprints, facial images, Iris prints and voice
recognition.

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Types of Biometric Sensor
 Physiological Biometrics; mainly include face recognition, fingerprint, hand
geometry, Iris recognition, and DNA.
 Behavioral biometrics; mainly include keystroke, signature and voice
recognition.

Sub-Topic: Computer Output Devices

The term output refers to information out of a computer.
Output can be meaningful information or gibberish, and it can appear in a variety
of forms - as binary numbers, as characters, as pictures, and as printed pages.
Output devices refer to any device capable of representing information from a
computer.
Output devices are therefore hardware components responsible for translating
information processed by a computer into a suitable form.
The most common output devices include the following:
 Printers
 Monitor/Visual Display Unit/Screen
 Audio output devices;
 Speakers
 Data projectors
 Facsimile machine(fax machines)
The two major forms of computer output are: Soft copy and Hard copy
Soft copy:
 This refers to information/data displayed visually on the screen or is audio
or voice form such as speech or music and this kind of output is not
tangible.
 Soft copy exists electronically and displays for a temporary period of time.
 Soft copy output devices: Monitors and Speakers
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Hard copy:
 This refers to information/data that is in a permanent form that is in print out
form and is tangible
 Hard copy refers to a printout of data stored in a computer.
 It is considered hard because it exists physically on paper, whereas
a soft copy exists only electronically.
 Hard copy output devices: Printers and plotters

Advantages of hardcopy over softcopy

 It cannot be easily changed without trace
 It can be read off line namely without a computer
 It is cheaper compared to softcopy which requires computer devices to be
able to read the information
 Hardcopies last longer if stored in a safe place compared to softcopy which
must be all the time changed with the technological developments taking
place
 Hardcopies are universal as both rich and poor readers read them

Printers
 A printer is an output devices that produce text and graphics on a physical
media like paper.
 They produce a hard copy (permanent human-readable text and/or
graphics) of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print
media such as paper.
 In other words, you will be able to view that information on paper (or other
print media) instead of a computer monitor.
 Printers come in many sizes and with numerous options however the major
differences between printers are: Reliability, speed, output and costs
 Printers are categorized by how images are formed that is whether or not
the image is formed by physical contact of the print mechanism with paper.
There are two major categories:
 Impact printers
 Non-impact printers
The difference between impact printers and non-impact printers is that impact
printers tend to be considerably noisier than nonimpact printers but are useful for
multipart forms such as invoices.

Impact Printers
 Impact printers are a class of printers that work by banging a head or
needle against an ink ribbon to make a mark on the paper.
 They use pins or hammers which hit a ribbon to transfer images to paper.
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 Print media could be; Paper, Cloth, Plastic transparencies

Types of Impact Printers

They include the following:
 Character printers/serial printers
 Line printers/high speed printers
 Dot matrix printers

Character/serial printers
 These are low speed printers that copy the action of the type writers by
printing one character at a time.
 Characters are engraved on the print heads directly. Character fonts
cannot easily be modified.
 Examples of character printers; Daisy‗s wheel, Thimble printers etc.

Daisy‘s wheel
 The daisy wheel is a disk made of plastic
or metal on which characters stand out in
relief along the outer edge.
 To print a character, the printer rotates
the disk until the desired letter is facing
the paper.
 Then a hammer strikes the disk,
forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the
character on the paper.
 This type of printer produces letter-quality type.

Thimble printers
 These were earlier letter quality printers similar to a daisy wheel printer.
 Instead of a wheel, characters were formed facing out and around the rim
of a thimble-shaped cup.

Advantages
 These printers have high quality output.
 They are the cheapest type of printers

Disadvantages
 They are very slow
 Are noisy
 Cannot print graphics
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  Have limited type styles

Line printers
 These are high-speed printers capable of
printing an entire line at one time. A fast line
printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per
minute.
 The disadvantages of line printers are that
they cannot print graphics, the print quality is
low, and they are very noisy.
 Examples of line printers; Chain printers,
Band printers, Belt printers, Drum printers etc

Advantage of line printers

 They are speedy

Disadvantages of line printers

 Poor quality output
 Lots of noise
 They are very expensive

Dot matrix printers

 Dot-matrix printers are so far the most
commonly used impact printers.
 A dot matrix printer works by striking an ink
ribbon to print tiny and closely spaced dots
onto paper to form certain characters and
simple images.
 They produce characters and illustrations by
striking pins against an ink ribbon to print
closely spaced dots in the appropriate
shape.
 Dot-matrix printers are relatively expensive and do not produce high-quality
output.
 However, they can print to multi-page forms (carbon copies).
 Examples of dot matrix printers; Epson LQ 1170, Epson LQ 2170, Epson
FX 880

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Advantages
 They are faster than daisy‗ wheel printers
 They are least expensive printers
 Produce a variety of type face styles without changing the print mechanism
 They can withstand dusty environment, vibrations and extreme
temperatures
 They can print on continuous paper or multipart documents
 They are the only printers which can use stencils
 They can print on a triplicate document because of the striking mechanism
 Low per page cost
 Energy efficient

Disadvantages
 They do not offer high quality output.
 They are generally noisy because of the striking mechanism
 They are relatively slow
 They are not readily available on market
 They are not easily serviced because they are based on old technology
 Their colour print is limited to two (black and red)

Advantages of Impact Printers

 They are easier to maintain because their print heads require fewer
periodic cleaning.
 They are reliable especially in commercial printing since print heads have
longer life span.
 They are faster and can go over speeds of 160 characters per
second hence increased productivity.
 They are flexible and cheap capable of printing various font styles and
heavy graphics and can be used in place of plotters that are expensive.

Disadvantages of Impact Printers

 These printers are very noisy during operation though plastic covers are
used on them to reduce the noise.
 They have low print resolution that is they are not good for high quality
graphics
 Print heads over heat during long print out periods hence leading to low
productivity.

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Non-Impact Printers
 Non-impact printers are printers that do not operate by striking a head
against a ribbon. They use chemicals, lasers or heat to form the images on
the paper.
 The term nonimpact is important primarily in that it distinguishes quiet
printers from noisy (impact) printers.
They include the following:
 Inkjet/DeskJet printers
 Bubble jet printers
 Thermal printers
 Laser jet/page printers

Inkjet Printers
 Inkjet printers spray extremely tiny and precise
ink droplets to create characters and graphics.
 Based on color mixing principles, inkjet
printers utilize several ink cartridges containing
different colors to produce vivid color images.
 Which is why inkjet printers are often applied
for picture-intensive printing
 Examples of inkjet printers; HP Desk jet 690C,
Epson stylus 640

Advantages of inkjet printers

 Low levels of noise during operation
 Fairly high speed
 Ability to print in colour
 Very good quality output and ability to print graphics
 Small
 Energy efficient
 Many choices from which to choose

Disadvantages of inkjet printers

 Nozzles can be blocked if unfiltered ink is used
 Very high costs of maintenance and buying
 Higher cost per page
 Slow
 Special paper is required for highest resolution output
 Limited to cut sheet media

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Bubble jet printers
 These are a type of ink-jet printer developed
by Canon.
 The bubble-jet printers use special heating
elements to prepare the ink.
 Bubble-jet printers consist of a grid of ink-
containing nozzles that forms an image when
the ink is heated and expanded, forcing it out
onto the page. Examples include: Canon BJC
200

Advantages
 High quality output
 They are portable
 They are battery driven
 They are reasonably priced

Disadvantage
 Bubble-jet printers do not print as fast or sharply as a laser printer

Thermal printers
 Thermal printers are printers that use heat to
transfer an image onto a special paper.
 Thermal printers produce images by melting
thermal ribbon to affix it upon paper or another
material.
 There are two kinds of thermal printers: thermal
wax transfer and direct thermal.

Advantages of thermal printers

 Highest quality desktop colour printing
 Low noise level

Disadvantages of thermal printers

 Are relatively slow
 Require special expensive paper that degrades with storage
 The paper is expensive

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Laser printer
Type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to
produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser
alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it
hits.
 The drum is then rolled through a reservoir
of toner, which is picked up by the charged
portions of the drum.
 Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper
through a combination of heat and pressure.
 Because an entire page is transmitted to a drum before the toner is applied,
laser printers are sometimes called page printers.
 In addition to the standard monochrome laser printer, which uses a single
toner, there also exist color laser printers that use four toners to print in full
color.
 Color laser printers tend to be about five to ten times as expensive as their
monochrome siblings.
 Laser printers produce very high-quality print and are capable of printing an
almost unlimited variety of fonts.
 In addition to text, laser printers are very adept at printing graphics.
However, you need significant amounts of memory in the printer to print
high-resolution graphics.
 Because laser printers are nonimpact printers, they are much quieter. They
are also relatively fast. The speed of laser printers ranges from about 4 to
20 pages of text per minute.
 Examples of laser printers; HP LaserJet 1100 series, HP Laser Jet 5M
colour printer, Epson EPL-N2000 PS printer

Advantages of laser printers

 They produce high quality text and graphics
 Have very productive speed of between 5-50 copies per minute
 Low noise levels
 Excellent graphics capabilities
 Low maintenance requirements
 Large variety of type face sizes and styles
 Fast
 Many choices from which to choose
 Low cost per page

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Disadvantage of laser printers
 They are expensive especially the colour printers
 Limited to cut sheet media
 Slow for graphics output

Advantages of non-impact printers

 They are noiseless
 They consume very little power
 Produce clear images with high resolution
 Their print mechanisms are reliable with no paper jams, blocked nozzles
thereby increasing productivity

Disadvantages of non-impact printers

 Require special paper from printing hence increasing the costs
 Paper are affected by age, sunlight, humidity and chemical vapour
 Papers have to be specially prepared hence inconvenient in commercial
printing.
 Print heads cannot be repaired even if a single dot heat fails the entire print
head must be replaced
 Print speed is low due to the time given for the print heads to cool before
the next print cycle
 Print heads have shorter life span

Common Problems Associated With the Use of Printers

 Paper misfeeds
 Paper jams
 Clogged ink jets
 Jammed ribbons
 Toner builds up on rollers

Factors to consider before buying a printer
 Pages per minute print out
 Memory of at least 2 mega bytes
 Price
 Availability of the tonner or cartridge
 Purpose of the printer
 Printer drivers

Advantages of printers
 Information produced is permanent
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Disadvantages of printers
 The time to get the printout is slow when compared to display devices
 Paper is wasted for obtaining the output
 Printers are generally noisier than display devices

Comparison Between Impact And Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers
 Makes a lot of noise while  Makes less/negligible noise while
printing printing
 Produces less quality print  Produces high quality print output
output (limited color) (multi-colored)
 Have comparatively low print  Have high print speeds
speeds
 Can use or print on a variety  Usually work with or use special
of paper types and textures paper
 Can work in extreme  Not well suited to extreme
temperatures and dusty temperatures and dusty
environments environments.
 Relatively easy and cheaper  Expensive to maintain
to maintain
Monitor/Visual Display Unit/Screen
 A computer display monitor, usually called simply a monitor, is a piece of
electrical equipment which displays viewable images generated by a
computer without producing a permanent record.
 The monitor is used to view data that is input from the key board.
 The monitors are categorized according to their shape and technology of
operation. They include; Cathode ray tube (CRT) and Flat panel displays

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

 This is the most common and popular type of
monitor used on desktop computers, work
stations and dumb.
 These monitors generate images using small
dots on them called picture elements (pixels).
 The smaller the pixels and the closer they are,
the better the images clarity and sharpness.
(Resolution)

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Advantages of Cathode Ray Tubes
 High resolution
 Sharp contrast at large view angles
Disadvantages of Cathode Ray Tubes
 They are bulky
 Consume a lot of power
 They are expensive
Flat panel displays
 These are thin, weightless and low power consuming monitors used on
portable computers.
 The monitors available are of three types of flat panel displays: LCD, TFT
and plasma
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor
 This is a type of display used in digital watches
and many portable computers.
 It displays utilize two sheets of polarizing
material with a liquid crystal solution between
them.
 An electric current passed through the liquid
causes the crystals to align so that light cannot
pass through them.
 Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either
allowing light to pass through or blocking the light. Monochrome LCD
images usually appear as blue or dark gray images on top of a grayish-
white background.
 Color LCD displays use two basic techniques for producing color: Passive
matrix is the less expensive of the two technologies.
Thin film transistor (TFT) monitor
 Also called active-matrix monitors, they
produce color images that are as sharp as
traditional CRT displays, but the technology is
expensive.
Advantages
 Lower power consumption
 Low cost
 Small size

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Disadvantages
 They do not emit light; as a result, the image has very little contrast
 The screen is very susceptible to glare, so the optimum viewing angle is
very narrow. They have no colour capability
 The resolution is not as good as that of a cathode ray tube. Resolution is
the clearness or sharpness of an image
Plasma monitor
 A type of thin display screen used in some
older portable computers and is the oldest flat
screen technology.
 A gas-plasma display works by sandwiching
neon gas between two plates.
Advantages
 The images are much brighter than on a
standard CRT
 The resolution is excellent
 Glare is not a significant problem
 The screen does not flicker like some CRTs

Disadvantages
 Only a single colour is available (reddish orange)
 The technology is expensive
 It uses a lot of power

Comparison Between CRT and Flat panel displays e.g. LCD, TFT
Cathode Ray Tubes Flat panel displays e.g. LCD, TFT
 Work like standard TVs  Create images on the screen and
because they also contain a produce colour either passive
cathode ray tube. matrix or active matrix technology.
 Consume more power  Consume less power
 Relatively cheap  More expensive
 Common on desktops  Common with hand held devices
 Use analog signals  Use digital signals
 Not ideal due to their size  Ideal for limited space
 Emit electromagnetic  Do not emit electromagnetic
radiation radiation

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Audio output devices;
These are the computer output devices that produce sound. Examples; of audio
devices include; Speakers, Headphones, Headsets, Earphones
Speakers
 These produce sound output and are
common with today‗s multimedia programs
that have become so important and
necessary.
 Speakers are electro-acoustic transducers
that convert electrical signals into sounds loud
enough to be heard at a distance.
Advantages of audio output devices
 Are ideal for visually impaired people
Disadvantages
 Are not suitable for use in noisy environment
 Not suitable for use in very quiet environment where other people are
working for example libraries
 No permanent copy is produced
 A computer can only repeat the same message exactly the same way
therefore when the message is not understood the first time, it may not be
understood the second time.
Data Projectors
Is a computer output device that projects the display
on a computer monitor onto a large projector sheet for
all people to see more clearly.
There are two types of projectors;
 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) projector (uses
liquid crystal display technology. Produces less
quality images)
 DLP (Digital Light Processing) projector (uses tiny mirrors to reflect light.
Produces much better images, even in a well lit room

Facsimile Machine (Fax Machines)

This is a machine that transmits and receives documents over telephone lines
This is a device that can send or receive pictures and text over a telephone line.
Fax machines work by digitizing an image -- dividing it into a grid of dots.

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Advantages
 The fax machine saves papers which would otherwise be used for printing.
 It allows a user to store, received faxes on a computer.
 It receives faxes and makes emails to others
 Hard copies of sent and received documents can be printed.
Disadvantages
 Sending documents with more characters can be slow.
 Paper can be wasted if junk faxes are sent

Multifunctional Devices
Is a device or computing device that has
functionalities/features of printer, scanner, photocopy or
even a fax machine, all incorporated in it.

Advantages
 The multi-function machine takes up less desk
space compared to having a separate printer,
scanner, photocopier, or even a fax machine.
 And more importantly the cost of a multi-function
machine is less compared to the cost of each individual device (printer,
scanner, photocopier, or even a fax machine).

Disadvantage
 The main disadvantage of a multi-function machine is that when it breaks
down, all its various functions are inhibited i.e. printing, scanning,
photocopying and faxing
Input-Output Devices:
Touch Screen
 This is a type of display screen that has a
touch-sensitive transparent panel covering
the screen.
 Instead of using a pointing device such as a
mouse or light pen, you can use your finger to
point directly to objects on the screen.
 Touch screens are commonly used in:
Automated teller machines, Directories
conveying tourists‗ information in airports and
hotels, Fast food restaurants menus

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Advantages
 No extra peripherals are needed except the monitor
 Allows easy access to commands usually identified by words or symbols on
the screen
 Touch screens also have assisted in recent changes in the PDA and Cell-
Phone Industries, making these devices more usable.
Disadvantages
 Are not suitable for inputting a large amount of data because they require
a lot of arm movements
 Only items already on the screen can be selected
 Although touch screens provide a natural interface for computer
novices, they are unsatisfactory for most applications because the finger
is such a relatively large object.
 It is impossible to point accurately to small areas of the screen. In addition,
most users find touch screens tiring to the arms after long use.
Network interface card (NIC)
 Also called network interface
controller, network adapter or
LAN adapter:
 Is an input and output device which
enables a computer to be connected
over a network.
Modem (Modulator Demodulator).
 Is an input and an output device used for sending
and receiving information and data over telephone
lines.
 Data/information can be represented in two ways
electronically. One way is digital and another way is
analogue.
 A modem converts digital data/information into
analog data/information and transmits it over
communication media (telephone lines) and then
converts the analog data/information into digital data/information on the
other side
Special Note:
Terminal
A terminal is a device that enables you to communicate with a computer.
Generally, a terminal is a combination of keyboard and display screen.
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Terminals are sometimes divided into three classes based on how much
processing power they contain:
 Intelligent terminal: A stand-alone device that contains main memory and a
Central Processing Unit.
 Smart terminal: Contains some processing power, but not as much as an
intelligent terminal.
 Dumb terminal: This has no processing capabilities. It relies entirely on
the computer‘s processor.

Examples of terminals include;

 EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) terminal is used to record purchases at the
point where the consumer purchases the product or services.
 EFTPOS (Electronic Fund Transfer Point of Sale) terminals are able to
transfer funds from a customer‗s bank account directly to a retain outlet‗s
account after reading the customer‗s debit card.

ATM (Automated Teller Machine)

ATM is a self-service banking machine attached to a host computer through a
telephone network.
Sub-Topic: Computer Storage
Computer storage is the place where data is held in an electromagnetic or optical
form for access by a computer processor.
Computer storage is divided into:
 Primary storage (Memory)
 Secondary storage. (Backing/ auxiliary storage)
Primary storage:
Primary storage refers to temporary storage of information the computer is
currently working on. Primary storage is fast because it is accessed electrically
and no mechanical components are involved.
Most memory except ROM, flash memory and CMOS is volatile and contents
must be transferred to secondary storage before the computer is turned off.
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Primary storage includes;
 RAM
 Registers
 Cache memory.
Note:
 Cache Memory is fast memory that serves as a buffer between the
processor and main memory.
 The cache holds data that was recently used by the processor and saves a
trip all the way back to slower main memory.
Secondary storage
Secondary storage is very necessary because primary memory is volatile (RAM)
and limited (ROM).
Secondary storage provides long term storage for software programs and data.
Secondary storage is slow because of the mechanical components involved.
Secondary storage is non-volatile and its contents stored are relatively more
permanent when compared to primary storage.
Secondary storage mainly includes both internal and external storage media e.g.
Internal hard disks
 Tape
 CDs
 DVDs
 Flash disks
 Memory cards
 Floppy disks
 External hard disk etc.
Differences between primary storage and secondary storage
Primary Storage Secondary Storage
 Primary storage is closely  Secondary storage is relatively
connected to the CPU and is permanent but further away
used for temporary storage of from the CPU
data and instructions during
processing
 Primary storage is faster to  Secondary storage is relatively
access than secondary storage slower to access than primary
storage
 Primary storage is volatile (i.e.  Secondary storage is non-
contents are lost when power is volatile
turned off)
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  Primary storage is based on  Secondary storage is usually
electronic technology based on magnetic (or optical)
and mechanical technologies

Computer Memory
Computer memory is divided into RAM and ROM.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
 This is the type of memory that contains very important programs installed
by the computer manufacturer (firmware e.g. Basic Input Output System).
 These programs manage the booting and basic settings of the computer.
ROM makes up about 30% of internal computer memory.
 ROM is non-volatile; its contents are NOT lost when power is switched off
or when the computer is turned off.

ROM is divided into following types:

1- PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

 This type of ROM is initially blank. The user or manufacturer can write data
or programs onto it using special devices.
 However, once the data or programs are written on a PROM chip, they
cannot be erased or changed.
 If there was an error, the error cannot be erased.
 Hence, rendering the PROM chip unusable.
2- EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 This type of ROM is also initially blank. The user or manufacturer can write
data or programs onto it by using special devices.
 Unlike PROM, the data written on an EPROM chip can be erased by using
special devices and ultraviolet rays.
 So data or programs written on an EPROM chip can be changed and new
data can also be added. When EPROM is in use, its contents can only be
read.
3- EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 This type of ROM can be written, changed and or erased with the help of
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 electrical devices.
 So data or programs stored in this type of ROM chip can be easily
modified.
Uses of ROM
 It stores data and programs that must be kept permanent at all time
 It stores system files that enable a computer to operate
 It stores BIOS that enables a computer to start

RAM (Random Access Memory)

 RAM is also called main memory.
 RAM is the type of memory in
which data, information and
instructions are stored/held during
processing and when they are
awaiting to be processed and
executed.
 RAM makes up about 70% of
internal computer memory.
 RAM is volatile, its contents are lost when power is switched off or when
the computer is turned off.
Types of RAM:
 Static random access memory (SRAM)
 Dynamic random access memory (DRAM)
 Synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM)
 Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)
 Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM (DDR SDRAM)
Uses of RAM
 Provides storage of a copy of the main software program.
 Provides temporary storage of a copy of an application program
 Provides temporary storage of a copy of data items input from the key
board and mouse.

Differences between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
 Volatile  Non-volatile
 Read and write  Read only
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  Temporary  Permanent
 Can be  Normally not
increased increasable

Storage Devices:
 Storage devices are the computer hardware used to read/write data and
information from or onto storage media by the computer.
 Reading is the process of transferring data, instructions and information
from a storage medium into memory.
 Writing is the process of transferring data, instructions and information from
memory to a storage medium.
 The speed of a storage device is defined by its access time which is the
amount of time it takes to locate an item on a medium.
Examples of storage devices include:
 CD-ROM Drive
 CD-RW Drive
 DVD-ROM Drive
 DVD-RW Drive
 Combo Drive
 Floppy Disk Drive
 Tape Drive
 Zip Disk Drive
Storage Media:
Storage Media refers to the computer hardware on which data or information is
written (stored) or read from by the storage devices.
The categories of Storage Media include the following:
Magnetic storage media e.g.
 Magnetic tape
 Floppy disk
 Zip disks
 hard disks etc
Optical storage media e.g.
 CD-R
 CD-RW
 CD-ROM
 DVD-R
 DVD-RW

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  DVD-ROM
 Solid-State Storage (SSS)
 Solid state hard drive
 Memory stick/Pen drive/flash disk
 SD card
 Micro SD card
Magnetic Storage Media
Magnetic storage media represent data as magnetic spots on the tape or disk,
with a magnetized spot representing a bit of 1 and the absence of a magnetized
spot representing a bit of 0. Common examples of magnetic storage media
include;
Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated
ribbon of plastic, capable of storing large
amounts of data and information.
 Tape storage (Magnetic tape storage)
requires sequential access, i.e. data must be
accessed in the ascending order in which it
was stored.
 For example; If the computer is to read data
from the middle of a tape, all data on the tape, that was stored before the
data to be read, must be passed over consecutively.
 Tapes are used for long term storage and backup
 Today, magnetic tape storage is no longer commonly used.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Data collection can go on  The data can only be stored,
without interruption overnight or recorded and read using special
for an entire weekend. equipment.
 Magnetic tape can be recorded  If the data is stored near a strong
over and reused repeatedly. magnetic field or a large speaker,
the tape can be damaged.
 Large amounts of information is  Magnetic tape has a lifespan of
stored (up to 1 Terabyte). 15 years. Data quality gradually
erodes over time.
 Magnetic tape is inexpensive  It is necessary to keep older tape
and budget friendly. equipment just to be able to read
the stored data.

83
Floppy Disk (Diskette)
 A floppy disk, or diskette, is a portable, cheap storage media that consists
of a thin circular, flexible plastic disk with a magnetic coating enclosed in a
square-shaped plastic shell.
 Floppy disks (often called floppies or diskettes) are portable, because you
can remove them from a disk drive.
 Disk drives for floppy disks are called floppy drives.
 Floppy disks are slower to access and have less storage capacity, but they
are much less expensive. And most importantly, they are portable.
 A floppy disk is a thin, circular, flexible plastic disk with a magnetic coating
enclosed in a square-shaped plastic shell.

Write Protection Tab

 This is a padlock system found on disks that is used
to protect them when not in use.
 Floppy diskettes need to be formatted before using
them to prepare them for reading and writing.
 Formatting is the process of preparing a floppy disk
or hard disk for reading and writing by organizing the
disk into storage locations called tracks and sectors.
 For reading and writing purposes, sectors are grouped into clusters.
 The formatting process may also erase the file location information and
redefine the file allocation table (FAT) for these items of a formatted disk.
Advantages
 Their mode of data access is random access and not winding and
unwinding.
 They are portable and can fit in a shirt pocket and are the best so far since
their size is acceptable.
 Since they are circular, data can be accessed from them at any sector in a
short time.
 Their storage capacity is quite considerably bigger and can store up to 1.44
MB of data.
 Their rigid plastic cover provides protection for the data stored.
 They provide a reliable form of storage
 They can be used to transfer data from one computer to another
 They are convenient and inexpensive.
Disadvantages
 Harsh conditions of storage like temperature changes, moisture, bending
can damage data stored on them.
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  Data can easily be lost if the magnetic surface is exposed to a magnetic
field so their data life is limited.
 Access time of a floppy is slow
 Storage capacity of a floppy disk is limited that is only 1.44MB.
Hard Disks
 A hard disk is the main storage media
used by the computer to store data and
information.
 The hard disk is also known as a hard disk
drive. (HDD)
 A hard disk usually consists of a stack
of rotating inflexible circular disks called
platters on which data, instructions and
information are stored electronically.
 The storage device used to read or write
data or information from or onto a hard
disk is the hard disk drive (HDD), i.e. both
the hard disk and hard disk drive are
integrated together into one.
 The read/write head mechanism reads and
writes data/information on the hard disk,
barely touching the disk's platter surface.
 When it unfortunately touches the platter‘s surface that is called a head
crash. All the hard disk data/information will be destroyed.
 Hard disks are sealed tightly to keep out contaminants like dust and smoke
which can lead to head crashes.
 Like all storage media connected to a computer, hard disks are given drive
letters; usually C: for the main hard disk and D:, E:, F: etc for the other hard
disks or storage media.
 Most computers usually have one hard disk; which is located inside the
system unit. However, a computer can have more than one hard disk,
inside the system unit.
 Computer hard disks can either be Internal/fixed or External/removable
Internal (fixed) disks
 These are high speed and high storage capacity hard disks that cannot be
removed from the disk drives.
 Each drive unit houses several non-removable platters with a number of
read and write heads for reading and recording data on the disks.
 It has a motor that rotates the drive at a high constant rate but because
85
 some fixed disks are large than exchangeable disks the rotational speed
may be slower than that of removable disk units.
 Although not removable, or portable, this type of hard disk has greater
storage capacity, access speed and is more reliable.
External (removable) hard disks
These are special types of hard disks that may be
connected onto a computer when there is need for
storage and then removed thereafter.
Advantages of hard disks
 Provide far much larger storage capacity
 Provide faster and convenient data access
time
 Hard disks are cheaper than floppy diskettes
per megabyte.
 Since some reside inside the computer, they cannot be stolen or
misplaced.
 Data life of hard disks is long once in use
 Hard disks are reliable and have better protection against dust and dirt.
Disadvantages of hard disks
 They are not portable especially those that reside inside the computer
 Hard disks are expensive
 Data becomes less secure if left on the hard disk
 May fail due to violent shaking
 Virus attacks render data life limited in case of unprotected systems
 Head crash may occur due to extreme shock or contaminants
 Disks are affected by magnetic fields since their storage media is made of
the same material
 Since they are metallic, they expand and contract due changes in
temperatures hence this may lead to data loss
Why a hard disk may fail to operate
 Aging
 Violent shaking
 Power failures
 Virus attacks
 Excessive heat
 Excessive Humid conditions

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Optical Storage Media
 Optical disks are flat, round, portable storage medium that are used to
store data using microscopic pits (indentation) and land (flat areas) that are
in the middle layer of the disks.
 They store items in a single track which is also divided into evenly sizes
sectors that spirals from the center of the disk to the edge of the disk.
 A track is narrow recording band that forms a full circle on the surface of a
disk.
 A sector is a pie-shaped section on a track and is capable of holding data.
 Any sector that cannot be used due to a physical flaw on the disk is called
a bad sector
 Data and information is stored on Optical storage media by making marks
in a pattern that can be read using a laser beam.
 Optical storage media discs (CDs and DVDs) used in personal computers
are 4.75 inches in diameter. Whereas smaller computers and devices (e.g.
digital cameras) use mini discs that have a diameter of 3 inches or less.
Categories of Optical Storage Media Discs
The two general categories of optical storage media discs include; CDs and
DVDs. The DVDs have much greater storage capacity (4.7 GB) than CDs. (700
MB).
Different Types of CDs and DVDs
CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory)
A CD-ROM comes with data and information pre-written by the CD manufacturer
and can only can be read and used. (CD-ROM data and information cannot be
erased or changed).
CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable)
A CD-R is bought blank, data and information can be written on it only once using
a storage device such as a CD-RW drive, DVD-ROM drive or DVD-RW drive and
disc burning software. (Once data and information is written on the CD-R, it
cannot be erased or changed)
CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable)
A CD-RW is bought blank, data and information can be written on it, changed or
even erased multiple times using a storage device such as a CD-RW drive or
DVD-RW drive and disc burning software.
The Reliability of the CD-R reduces with each and every successive rewrite.

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 Advantages of CDs Disadvantages of CDs
 Small and portable  Fairly fragile, easy to snap or
scratch
 Very cheap to produce  Smaller storage capacity than a
hard drive or DVD
 Most computers can read  Slower to access than the hard
CDs. disk.
 Fairly fast to access the
data - quicker than
magnetic tape

DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disc Read Only Memory)

A DVD-ROM comes with data and information pre-written by the DVD
manufacturer and can only can be read and used. (DVD-ROM data and
information cannot be erased or changed).
DVD-R (Digital Video Disc Recordable)
A DVD-R is bought blank, data and information can be written on it only once
using a storage device such as a DVD-RW drive and disc burning software.
(Once data and information is written on it, it cannot be erased or changed)
DVD-RW (Digital Video Disc Rewritable)
A DVD-RW is bought blank, data and information can be written on it, changed or
even erased multiple times using a storage device such as a DVD-RW drive and
disc burning software.

Note:
 DVDs are also available in a variety of recordable and rewritable versions
and formats such as DVD+R DVD+RW etc.
 Of recent, different high capacity DVD formats have been developed, these
include; the BD-Disc (Blu-Ray Disc). It has a storage capacity of up to 100
GB.
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  Another high capacity DVD format is the HD-Disc (High-Density Disc). It
has a storage capacity of up to 60 GB.
 In addition, the UMD (Universal Media Disc) is a mini-DVD that has grown
in popularity. It can store up to 1.8 GB of games, movies, or music.

Advantages of DVDs Disadvantages of DVDs
 Very large storage capacity  DVDs do not work in CD drives
4.7-9 GB
 Sound and picture quality is  There is no single standard of
excellent DVD
 DVDs are now mass produced  They can be easily damaged by
so they are relatively cheap breaking or scratching
 DVD drives can read CDs 

Blu-Ray
 A Blu-ray disk is an optical storage device similar to
CD and DVD technology.
 It also uses a laser to read and write to the disk,
but instead of a red laser beam, as used in DVD
and CD, it uses a blue-violet laser beam.
 This means it can burn smaller pits on the disk and
so it has even more storage capacity than a DVD.
 A single layer Blu-ray can store 25 GB whilst a
double layer Blu-ray can hold up to 50 GB of data.
Blu-ray is commonly used to store high definition
films (HD).

There are three formats in the specification.

 BD-ROM (read-only format)
 BD-R (recordable format)
 BD-RE (rewritable format)

Advantages of Blu-ray Disadvantages of Blu-ray

 Very large storage capacity 25-50  Blu-ray does not work in
Gb DVD or CD drives
 Sound and picture quality is  They can be easily damaged
excellent, making them ideal for by breaking or scratching
storing HD films.
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  Blu-ray disks are now mass  Up to 50 GB in case of
produced so they are relatively damage. That is a lot of data
cheap to lose.
 A hybrid Blu-ray / DVD disk can 
be read in both a Blu-ray and
DVD player

Proper Care for Optical Disks

 Do not expose the disc to excessive heat or sunlight, smoke or liquids
 Do not stack disks, one on top of another.
 Do not touch the underside (shiny surface) of the disk.
 Always hold the disc by its edges.
 To avoid denting, do not drop the disk to the ground.
 To prevent damage and breakage, never bend the disk.
 Use a soft lint free cloth to remove spots, dust or finger prints and smears
on the disk.
Magneto-optical disk (MO disk)
 Is a hybrid disk that combines
the best features of both
magnetic and optical disk
technologies.
 Magneto-optical (MO) disks
have the erase and rewrite
capabilities of magnetic disks,
but also have the very high-
volume density capabilities of optical disks.
 MO disks are not popular and common because they are too expensive,
and not as reliable as magnetic media.
Solid-State Storage (SSS)
 Is a type of computer storage media that stores data electronically and has
no moving parts.
 Solid state storage is made of silicon microchips with less moving parts.
 Solid state storage media require less power and produce far less heat
than spinning hard disk drives or magnetic tape.
 Examples of Solid State Media Key Words: Solid
state hard drive, Memory stick, Pen drive, Flash memory, Micro
flash memory, SD card, Micro SD card

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 Advantages Disadvantages
 They don‘t require as much  SSDs are more expensive than
power to operate as hard hard drives.
drives do, which results in a
longer battery life.
 Their lightweight components  Data recovery can be an
make them easier to carry. extremely difficult, expensive and
a lengthy process.
 Less moving parts also means  The memory chips in an SSD
that SSDs are much faster, have a limited number of write
offering instant-load cycles, which can lead to
performance. unrecoverable data loss.
 They have less moving parts 
which makes them less likely
to experience damage from
vibrations, drops, accidents,
and other wear and tear.
Punched Cards
 A punched card is a piece of stiff
paper that contains digital
information represented by the
presence or absence of holes in
predefined positions.
 Early digital computers used
punched cards as the primary
medium for input of both computer programs and data, with offline data
entry on key punch machines.
 Early digital computers used punched cards as the primary medium for
input of both computer programs and data, with offline data entry on key
punch machines.

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Units of Measuring Computer Memory
 The smallest unit of measuring computer memory is a binary digit (bit).
 Binary digits are the numbers 1 and 0 which can be represented in a
computer by switching voltage on and off.
 Eight bits make one BYTE.
 The storage capacity of computer memory (RAM and ROM) and that of
secondary storage units like disks are generally given in bytes.

The following table shows the equivalence of bits and bytes

Bit Value Bytes Value
1 binary digit 0 or 1 1 bit
8 Bits 1 Byte
1 Kilobyte 1024 Bytes 1024
1 Megabyte 1024 Kilobytes 1,048,576
1 Gigabyte 1024 Megabytes 1,073,741,824
1 Terabyte 1024 Gigabytes 1,099,511,627,776
1 Petabyte 1024 Terabytes 1,125,899,906,842,624
1 Exabyte 1024 Petabytes 1,152,921,504,606,846,976
1 Zettabyte 1024 Exabytes 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
1 Yottabyte 1024 Zettabytes 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176
1 Brontobyte 1024 Yottabytes 1,237,940,039,285,380,274,899,124,224
1 Geopbytes 1024 Brontobytes 1,267,650,600,228,229,401,496,703,205,376

 In computing today, the approximation 1024 to 1000.

 This has brought about confusion and many manufacturers quote a disk
with 1,000,000,000 bytes as 1 GB (109) instead of 1,073,741,824 bytes
(230).
 One byte stores approximately one character.
Example: Example:
COMPUTING = C,O,M,P,U,T,I,N,G GOOD_SCHOOL =
= 9 characters G,O,O,D,_,S,C,H,O,O,L = 11characters
But 1 character = 8 bits But 1 character = 8 bits
9 characters = 9 X 8 = 72 bits 11 characters = 11 X 8 = 88 bits
Example: Example:
36OC = 3,6,O,C = 4 characters U.N.E.B = U, . , N, . , E, . ,B = 7 characters
But 1 character = 8 bits But 1 character = 8 bits
4 characters = 4 X 8 = 32 bits 7 characters = 7 X 8 = 56 bits
Example:
A standard floppy disk has a capacity of 1.44 MB. How many bytes and
characters can the floppy disk store?
1.44MB = 1.44 X 1048576 = 1509949.44 bytes = 1509949.44 characters

92
Example:
How many bits make up 200Kb?
200Kb = 200 X 1024 X 8 = 1638400 bits
Example:
Convert 5,120,000 bytes to Megabytes
5,120,000/1,048,576 = 4.8828125MB
Exercise:
Qn.1 Arrange the terms below in terms of their relative size in ascending order:
Character>Document>Page>Word>Paragraph
Gigabyte>Kilobyte>Megabyte>Bit>Byte
Qn.2 Does a text document with 1,000,000 characters fit onto a 1.44 MB floppy
disk?
Qn.3 Ali has a DVD full of data and would like to transfer the data to CDs. The
capacity of the DVD is 4.7GB and each CD is 700MB. Calculate the number of
CDs he would need to transfer all his data.
Qn.4 Convert 2GB to kb.

Computer data representation and numbering systems

 Humans understand decimal/base ten just because they have ten counting
fingers.
 Digital electronics (computers) understand binary because binary consists
of only two digita which correspond to the two power states.
 0 representing electrical charge OFF and 1 representing electrical charge
ON.
 Octal/base 8 and Hexadecimal/base 16 number systems are used to
represent complex binary data in a more compact form.
Binary numbering system
 Binary is a numbering system that is a series of 1s and 0s only.
Binary coding schemes:
 A binary coding scheme is a method used for representing all of the digits,
letters, special characters, and control characters available to a digital
computer using a combination of bits 0 and 1.
 There are three commonly used binary coding schemes: ASCII, EBCDIC
and Unicode.
ASCII:
 ASCII is an abbreviation for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.
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  Its is a character encoding scheme based on the ordering of the English
alphabet
EBCDIC:
 The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) uses
8 bits to represent symbols in the data.
 EBCDIC codes are used mainlyon IBM mainframe and midrange
computer systems.
Unicode:
 Unicode is a universal character encoding standard for the
representation of text which also includes symbols in multi-lingual
environments.
 Unicode codes can uniquely represent any character or symbol present
in any language like Chinese, Japanese etc.
ASCII Table
Dec Hex Binary Char Description Dec Hex Binary Char Description
Device Control
0 00 00000000 NUL Null 17 11 00010001 DC1
1
Start of Device Control
1 01 00000001 SOH 18 12 00010010 DC2
Header 2
Device Control
2 02 00000010 STX Start of Text 19 13 00010011 DC3
3
Device Control
3 03 00000011 ETX End of Text 20 14 00010100 DC4
4
End of Negative
4 04 00000100 EOT 21 15 00010101 NAK
Transmission Acknowledge
5 05 00000101 ENQ Enquiry 22 16 00010110 SYN Synchronize
End of
6 06 00000110 ACK Acknowledge 23 17 00010111 ETB Transmission
Block
7 07 00000111 BEL Bell 24 18 00011000 CAN Cancel
8 08 00001000 BS Backspace 25 19 00011001 EM End of Medium
Horizontal
9 09 00001001 HT 26 1A 00011010 SUB Substitute
Tab
10 0A 00001010 LF Line Feed 27 1B 00011011 ESC Escape
11 0B 00001011 VT Vertical Tab 28 1C 00011100 FS File Separator
Group
12 0C 00001100 FF Form Feed 29 1D 00011101 GS
Separator
Carriage Record
13 0D 00001101 CR 30 1E 00011110 RS
Return Separator
14 0E 00001110 SO Shift Out 31 1F 00011111 US Unit Separator
15 0F 00001111 SI Shift In 32 20 00100000 space Space
16 10 00010000 DLE Data Link
94
 Escape

Dec Hex Binary Char Description Dec Hex Binary Char Description
Exclamation
33 21 00100001 ! 49 31 00110001 1 One
mark
34 22 00100010 " Double quote 50 32 00110010 2 Two
35 23 00100011 # Number 51 33 00110011 3 Three
36 24 00100100 $ Dollar sign 52 34 00110100 4 Four
37 25 00100101 % Percent 53 35 00110101 5 Five
38 26 00100110 & Ampersand 54 36 00110110 6 Six
39 27 00100111 ' Single quote 55 37 00110111 7 Seven
Left
40 28 00101000 ( 56 38 00111000 8 Eight
parenthesis
Right
41 29 00101001 ) 57 39 00111001 9 Nine
parenthesis
42 2A 00101010 * Asterisk 58 3A 00111010 : Colon
43 2B 00101011 + Plus 59 3B 00111011 ; Semicolon
44 2C 00101100 , Comma 60 3C 00111100 < Less than
Equality
45 2D 00101101 - Minus 61 3D 00111101 =
sign
Greater
46 2E 00101110 . Period 62 3E 00111110 >
than
Question
47 2F 00101111 / Slash 63 3F 00111111 ?
mark
48 30 00110000 0 Zero 64 40 01000000 @ At sign

Dec Hex Binary Char Description Dec Hex Binary Char Description
65 41 01000001 A Capital A 78 4E 01001110 N Capital N
66 42 01000010 B Capital B 79 4F 01001111 O Capital O
67 43 01000011 C Capital C 80 50 01010000 P Capital P
68 44 01000100 D Capital D 81 51 01010001 Q Capital Q
69 45 01000101 E Capital E 82 52 01010010 R Capital R
70 46 01000110 F Capital F 83 53 01010011 S Capital S
71 47 01000111 G Capital G 84 54 01010100 T Capital T
72 48 01001000 H Capital H 85 55 01010101 U Capital U
73 49 01001001 I Capital I 86 56 01010110 V Capital V
74 4A 01001010 J Capital J 87 57 01010111 W Capital W
75 4B 01001011 K Capital K 88 58 01011000 X Capital X
76 4C 01001100 L Capital L 89 59 01011001 Y Capital Y
77 4D 01001101 M Capital M 90 5A 01011010 Z Capital Z

Dec Hex Binary Char Description Dec Hex Binary Char Description

95
 Left square
91 5B 01011011 [ 110 6E 01101110 n Small n
bracket
92 5C 01011100 \ Backslash 111 6F 01101111 o Small o
Right square
93 5D 01011101 ] 112 70 01110000 p Small p
bracket
Caret /
94 5E 01011110 ^ 113 71 01110001 q Small q
circumflex
95 5F 01011111 _ Underscore 114 72 01110010 r Small r
Grave /
96 60 01100000 ` 115 73 01110011 s Small s
accent
97 61 01100001 a Small a 116 74 01110100 t Small t
98 62 01100010 b Small b 117 75 01110101 u Small u
99 63 01100011 c Small c 118 76 01110110 v Small v
100 64 01100100 d Small d 119 77 01110111 w Small w
101 65 01100101 e Small e 120 78 01111000 x Small x
102 66 01100110 f Small f 121 79 01111001 y Small y
103 67 01100111 g Small g 122 7A 01111010 z Small z
Left curly
104 68 01101000 h Small h 123 7B 01111011 {
bracket
105 69 01101001 i Small i 124 7C 01111100 | Vertical bar
Right curly
106 6A 01101010 j Small j 125 7D 01111101 }
bracket
107 6B 01101011 k Small k 126 7E 01111110 ~ Tilde
108 6C 01101100 l Small l 127 7F 01111111 DEL Delete
109 6D 01101101 m Small m

Note:
 Any textual data will be stored as a sequence of corresponding
character codes.
 When the data is displayed or printed the character codes are converted
into the appropriate characters.

The word "CAT" in a word processor has 3 characters:

C its corresponding character code is 01000011

A its corresponding character code is 01000001
T its corresponding character code is 01010100
Therefore the word CAT becomes 01000011, 01000001, 01010100

The word "cat" in a word processor has 3 characters:

c its corresponding character code is 01100011

96
a its corresponding character code is 01100001
t its corresponding character code is 01110100
Therefore the word cat becomes 01100011, 01100001, 01110100

Note:
Conversion of decimal to binary (base 10 to base 2)

Example 1: Convert 19 decimal to Binary Example 2: Convert 51decimal to Binary

2 19 R 2 51 R
2 9 1 2 25 1
2 4 1 2 12 1
2 2 0 2 6 0
2 1 0 2 3 0
1 1
Answer=10011 Answer=110011

Conversion of binary to decimal (base 2 to base 10)

Example: Convert (10011)2 to Example: Convert (11011)2 to

decimal decimal
=(1X24) + (0X23) + (0X22) + (1X21) + =(1X25) + (1X24) + (0X23) + (0X22) +
(1X20) (1X21) + (1X20)
=(1X16) + (0X8) + (0X4) + (1X2) + =(1X32) + (1X16) + (0X8) + (0X4) +
(1X1) (1X2) + (1X1)
=16 + 0 + 0 +2 + 1 =32 + 16 + 0 + 0 +2 + 1
=19decimal =51decimal

Sub-Topic: Processing Devices:

Processing devices are the computer hardware involved in all processing
activities of the computer.

System Unit
 This is a box like case that houses electronic components of the computer
used to process data. It is made up of metal or plastic and protects the
internal components from damage.
 The system unit includes the chassis, microprocessor, main memory, ports,
motherboard, disk drives, drive bays, power supply and cooling systems
but does not include the keyboard or monitor, or any peripheral devices.

97
  A drive bay is a rectangular opening that typically holds disk drives.

Components of the system unit

Power supplies
 The power supply is the component of the system unit that converts the
wall outlet AC power of 110 to 220 volts into DC power of 0.5 to 12 volts.
 Built into the power supply is a fan that keeps the power supply cool.
Processor chips generate heat, which could cause the chip to burn up.
 Heat sink is a small ceramic or metallic component with fins on its surface
that absorbs and disperses heat produced by electrical components such
as a processor.

Note:
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
 UPS sometimes called a battery backup is a device which maintains a
continuous supply of electric power to connected equipment by supplying
power from a separate source in the event of a power outage.
 A UPS keeps a computer running for several minutes after a power outage,
enabling you to save data that is in RAM and shut down the computer
gracefully.
 Many UPSs now offer a software component that enables you to automate
backup and shut down procedures in case there's a power failure while
you're away from the computer.
 There are two basic types of UPS systems: standby power systems (SPSs)
and on-line UPS systems.

Mother Board/System Board/Main Board

 The motherboard also called the system board is the main circuit board of a
microcomputer.
 The motherboard contains the connectors for attaching additional boards.
 Typically, the motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass
storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the
controllers required to control standard peripheral devices, such as the
display screen, keyboard, and disk drive.
 Collectively, all these chips that reside on the motherboard are known as
the motherboard's chipset.
 On most PCs, it is possible to add memory chips directly to the
motherboard. You may also be able to upgrade to a faster PC by replacing
the CPU chip.

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Uses of the motherboard
 It provides a convenient method of inter board connection
 It reduces hand wiring and possibilities of errors
 It provides superior electrical performance

Expansion Slots and Expansion Cards

 An expansion slot is a socket on the motherboard that can hold an
Expansion card.
 Expansion adapter card also called adapter card is a circuit board that
increases the capabilities of the system or provides connections to
peripherals.
 Some motherboards include all necessary capabilities and do not require
adapter cards.
 Expansion cards are used for many supplemental capabilities such as
more memory, higher-quality sound devices, a modem, extra ports or
graphics capabilities.
Adapter card Purpose
 Sound card  Connects speakers or a microphone
 MIDI card  Connects musical instruments
 Network interface  Connects other computers
card (NIC)
 Video card  Connects a monitor
 USB card  Connects USB devices
 TV tuner card  Allows viewing of TV
 Video capture card  Connects video camera
 Modem card  Converts analog signals to digital signals and
vice versa
 Fire wire card  Connects firewire devices

Note:
Plug and Play (PNP)
 In the past, installing an expansion card was not easy and required you to
set switches and other elements on the motherboard. Today, many
computers support plug and play.
 PNP refers to the computer‘s capability to automatically configure adapter
cards and other peripherals as you install them when the computer is still
running.

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Ports
 A port is the point at which a peripheral attaches to the system unit.
 Through the port a peripheral can send data to or receive information from
the computer.
 A peripheral device such as a keyboard, monitor, printer, mouse, digital
camera and microphone often attaches by a cable to a port on the system
unit.

Note:
 Serial Port: Is a physical interface through which information transfers in or
out one bit at a time.
 Parallel Port: also called a printer port. It allows several bits to be
transmitted simultaneously and commonly provides the interface for such
devices as high-speed printers.
 USB Port: in full is Universal Serial Bus, these ports are used in high-speed
data transfer device interfaces.
 Bluetooth Ports: these use radio waves to transmit data between two
devices without using cables.
 Ethernet/Network Port: are used to connect a computer to a network.

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Connectors:
 A connector joins a cable to a port. A connector at one end of a cable
attaches to a port on the system unit and a connector at the other end of
the cable attaches to a port on the peripheral.
 Most connectors are available in one of two genders: male and female
 Male connectors have one or more exposed pins.
 Female connectors have matching holes to accept the pins on a male
connector

CMOS battery;
 CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) battery is a battery
that maintains the time, date, hard disk and other configuration settings in
the CMOS memory.
 CMOS batteries are small and are attached directly to the motherboard

Computer bus/buses
Buses are common electrical paths found on the motherboard that enable
communication and data flow between the various system components.
Types of computer bus include; Data buses, Address buses, Control buses,
Local bus

Data buses
 These are high ways in which data passes in the computer.
 There are many categories of data buses:
 They are bi-directional buses that carry information and data to and from
the microprocessor.
 The categories of data buses are: address lines, data lines, circuit lines

Address buses
They have the memory locations or devices to be acted on by the
microprocessor. They are usually unidirectional.

Control buses
They are unidirectional and carry command signals from the microprocessor.

Expansion bus
This carries data to and from the expansion slots

Local bus
This is an expansion bus that connects directly to the central processing unit.
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PCMCIA Cards (PC Cards)
 If you're familiar with expansion cards in desktop computers, you can think
of a PCMCIA card as an expansion card for a laptop.
 PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association)
cards are hardware interfaces that are slightly bigger than a standard credit
card and enable additional functionality for laptop computers and portable
devices.
 PCMCIA cards are now called PC Cards because of the ongoing changes
in the technology
 You can exchange PCMCIA/PC Cards without rebooting your computer.
For example, you can slip in a fax modem card when you want to send a
fax and then, when you're done, replace the fax modem card with a
memory card.

There are in fact three types of PCMCIA cards. All three have the same
rectangular size (85.6 by 54 millimeters), but different widths
 Type I PCMCIA cards can be up to 3.3 mm thick, and are used primarily for
adding additional ROM or RAM to a computer.
 Type II PCMCIA cards can be up to 5.5 mm thick. These cards are often
used for modem and fax modem cards.
 Type III PCMCIA cards can be up to 10.5 mm thick, which is sufficiently
large for portable disk drives.

PCMCIA Slots (PC Slots)

PCMCIA slots are expansion slots often found in laptop computers and portable
devices that allows for the easy and quick addition of PCMCIA cards
PCMCIA slots are now called PC slots because of the ongoing changes in the
technology
PCMCIA slots also come in three sizes:
 Type I PCMCIA slot can hold one Type I card
 Type II PCMCIA slot can hold one Type II card or one Type I card
 Type III PCMCIA slot can hold one Type III card or any combination of two
Type I or II cards.
ROM Chips
 This is the type of memory that contains very important programs installed
by the computer manufacturer (firmware e.g. Basic Input Output System).
 These programs manage the booting and basic settings of the computer.
ROM makes up about 30% of internal computer memory.
 ROM is non-volatile; its contents are NOT lost when power is switched off
or when the computer is turned off.
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Types of ROM:
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

RAM Chips
 RAM is also called main memory.
 RAM is the type of memory in
which data, information and
instructions are stored/held during
processing and when they are
awaiting to be processed and
executed.
 RAM makes up about 70% of
internal computer memory.
 RAM is volatile, its contents are lost when power is switched off or when
the computer is turned off.
Types of RAM:
 Static random access memory (SRAM)
 Dynamic random access memory (DRAM)
 Synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM)
 Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)
 Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM (DDR SDRAM)
Sound Components (Speaker and Microphone)
 The system has a small speaker housed in it and this can generate a
variety of sounds for example music and voice.
 Some computers have built in microphones used to record voice messages
and other sounds.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU is literally the brain of the computer. It interprets and executes computer
instructions.

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A CPU is also called a processor or microprocessor.
The design of the CPU affects the processing power and the speed of the
computer as well as the amount of main memory it can use effectively.
The more powerful the CPU, the faster the computer and the bigger the memory
required.
The CPU follows the instructions of the software to manipulate data into
information.
CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and
small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a microprocessor.
Modern CPUs also have an attached heat sink and small fan that go directly on
top of the CPU to help dissipate heat.
The CPU is made up of the following:
 Control Unit (CU)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Registers
 System Clock
The 2 principle designs or architectures of the CPU include: CISC and RISC
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing):
These are used in PCs and conventional mainframes. They support a large
number of instructions at low processing speed.
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing):
These are used mostly in workstations. They support a large number of
instructions. However, at faster processing speed.
Parts of a Micro-Processor
Control unit (CU);
 The control unit directs and co-ordinates most of the operations in the
computer.
 For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations
called the machine cycle/instruction cycle. Most processors used today
support pipelining.
Pipelining
Pipelining means that the CPU begins executing the second instruction before
completing the execution of the first instruction.
Machine Cycle
A machine cycle is also called a processor cycle or instruction cycle, is the basic
operation(s) performed by the CPU.

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The 4 basic operations of the machine cycle/instruction cycle include the
following:
 Fetching
 Decoding
 Executing
 Storing
Fetching;
 Fetching is the process of obtaining a
program instruction or data item from
memory.
 The time taken to fetch the
instruction/data item from memory is
called ―instruction time‖ i.e. (I-Time).
Decoding;
 Decoding is the process of translating
instructions into commands that the
computer understands.
Executing;
 Executing is the processing/carrying out of commands. The time taken to
decode and execute is called the ―execution time‖ i.e. (E-Time).
Storing;
 Storing is the process of writing the obtained results in memory.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU);
 This performs the execution part of the machine cycle.
 The ALU performs the arithmetic, comparison and logical operations.
 Arithmetic operations include; addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
 Comparison operations include; >, <, >=, <= and == operators.
 Logical operations involve; conditional and logical operators i.e. AND, OR
and NOT.
Registers;
A register is high speed temporary storage location used to hold data and
instructions.
A CPU contains numerous different types of registers, each of which performs a
specific function. Common types of registers include:
 Program Counter; is the type of register which holds the address of the
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 next instruction to be fetched from memory.
 Instruction Register; is the type of register which holds the currently fetched
instruction from memory.
 Instruction Decoder; is the type of register which interprets/decodes the
instruction currently held in the instruction register.
 Accumulator; is the type of register which holds the data items to be
processed as well as the arithmetic and logical operations.
 Status Register; is the type of register which holds a collection of different
condition flags which describe the status of the most recent operations
carried out by the ALU.
System Clock;
 The system clock controls how fast all the operations within a CPU, take
place.
 The speed at which the CPU executes instructions is called ―clock speed‖
or ―clock rate‖.
 Clock speed/ rate is measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz) e.g.
1,500Hz. However for modern computers it ranges between MegaHertz
(MHz) and GigaHertz (GHz).
 1KHz=1000Hz, 1MHz=1000KHz, 1GHz=1000MHz. 1KHz is equivalent to a
thousand cycles of the system clock. 1 MHz is equivalent to 1 million cycles
of the system clock whereas 1 GHz is equivalent to 1 billion cycles of the
system clock.
 Each cycle is basically a tick of the system clock. The faster the clock, the
more instructions the CPU executes per second.
Note:
This results in faster processing. Super scalar CPUs have 2 or more pipelines
that can process instructions at the same time.

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