INTCOM11

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course deals on the importance of computer concepts. Emphasis is on
defining and categorizing computers and operating systems; purchasing
hardware and software; understanding files and data storage options;
exploring computer architecture; and understanding digital media. Topics
include digital technology, software, Internet and the web, input/output
devices, storage technology, operating systems, data representation,
processors, computer memory, network, search engine, website, web
browser, web page, e-commerce, number system conversion/arithmetic,
digital media.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
Understanding computing as the use of computer technology to solve
problems, perform tasks, and process data.

What is Computing?
Computing is the study and use of computers, encompassing a wide range
of activities including the design of hardware, the creation of software, data
processing, and the development of networks and systems.

Scope: It includes various subfields such as computer science,

information technology, software engineering, and data
science.

COMPUTER
A Computer is an electronic device that processes data according to a set of
instructions called a program. It can perform a wide range of tasks, from
simple calculations to complex simulations, depending on its design and the
software it runs.

Who were the first Computers?

The first computers were people or human! That is, electronic computers
(and the earlier mechanical computers) were given this name because they
performed the work that had previously been assigned to people.
"Computer" was originally a job title: it was used to describe those human
beings (predominantly women) whose job it was to perform the repetitive
calculations required to compute such things as navigational tables, tide
charts, and planetary positions for astronomical almanacs. Imagine you had
a job where hour after hour, day after day, you were to do nothing but
compute multiplications. Boredom would quickly set in, leading to
carelessness, leading to mistakes. And even on your best days you wouldn't
be producing answers very fast. Therefore, inventors have been searching
for hundreds of years for a way to mechanize this task.

What technology is considered the first Computer?

The abacus was considered as the first computer, a mechanical or earlier
calculating devices used to aid in mathematical computations.

FUNCTIONALITIES OF A COMPUTER
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
 Takes data as input
 Stores data/instructions in its memory and use them when required
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information
 Generates the output
 Stores the outputs to the storage for future use

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE and SOFTWARE.

Computer Hardware – refers to the physical components of a computer

system that you can touch and manipulate. These components are essential
for a computer to function and interact with the user and software.

Categories of a Computer Hardware:

INPUT DEVICES: Input devices are hardware components that allow users
to interact with a computer by providing data or commands. These devices
enable users to input information and control the computer's operation.

Here are some common Input Devices:

 Keyboard: A keyboard is a primary input device that allows users to
enter alphanumeric characters, numbers, and various commands into
the computer. It is a standard input device for text-based data entry.
 Mouse: The mouse is a pointing device that typically consists of
buttons and a scroll wheel. It is used to move a cursor on the screen,
select, and interact with graphical user interfaces.
 Touchpad: Commonly found on laptops, touchpad serves a similar
function to a mouse, allowing users to move the cursor by sliding their
fingers on a touch-sensitive surface.
 Trackball: A trackball is a pointing device with a ball that users can
rotate to move the cursor. It offers an alternative to the traditional
mouse.
 Joystick: Joysticks are often used in gaming and flight simulation. They
consist of a stick-like lever that can be tilted in various directions to
control movement.
 Gamepad/Controller: Gamepads and controllers are input devices
designed for gaming consoles and PC gaming. They typically feature
buttons, triggers, and joysticks for gaming interactions.
 Scanner: A scanner converts physical documents, images, or photos
into digital formats that can be stored or manipulated on a computer.
 Graphic Tablet/Digitizer: Graphic tablets allow users to draw or write
directly onto a digital surface using a stylus. They are commonly used
by graphic designers and artists.
  Microphone: Microphones capture audio input, allowing users to record
voice, participate in voice chats, or use voice recognition software.
 Webcam: Webcams capture video input, enabling video conferencing,
online streaming, and video recording.
 Touchscreen: Touchscreens allow users to interact with a computer or
device by touching the display directly. They are common in
smartphones, tablets, and some desktop monitors.
 Biometric Input Devices: These include fingerprint scanners, retina
scanners, and facial recognition systems, which use unique biological
characteristics for user identification.

OUTPUT DEVICES: These are the devices receive and display or output data
from the computer in a form understandable to users.
Here are some common output devices:
 Computer Monitor - are the most common output devices. They visually
present information in the form of text, images, and videos. Common
types include CRT, LCD, LED, and OLED displays.
 CRT (Cathode-Ray Tube): CRT displays use a cathode-ray tube,
which involves firing electrons at a phosphor-coated screen to create
images.
Advantages:
 Good color reproduction.
 Wide viewing angles.
 No motion blur issues.
Disadvantages:
 Bulkier and heavier.
 Limited screen sizes.
 Consumes more power.
 Phasing out due to obsolescence.

 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): LCDs use liquid crystals sandwiched

between two layers of glass. When an electric current is applied, the
crystals change their orientation to control the passage of light.
Advantages:
 Slim and lightweight.
 Available in various sizes.
 Energy-efficient (especially in LED-backlit LCDs).
 No risk of burn-in.
Disadvantages:
 Limited viewing angles compared to some other technologies.
 May have motion blur in fast-paced scenes.
 Backlight bleed may occur.
 LED (Light-Emitting Diode):
 LED displays are a type of LCD that uses light-emitting diodes for
backlighting, replacing traditional fluorescent tubes.
Advantages:
 Slim and energy efficient.
 Improved brightness and contrast compared to traditional LCDs.
 No risk of burn-in.
 Available in various sizes.
Disadvantages:
 Limited viewing angles like traditional LCDs.
 May still have some motion blur.
 More expensive than traditional LCDs.

 OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diode): OLED displays use organic

compounds that emit light when an electric current is applied. Each
pixel is self-emissive, allowing for individual control.
Advantages:
 Excellent contrast ratios, as each pixel can be turned off
completely.
 Fast response times, reducing motion blur.
 Wide viewing angles.
 Thin, flexible, and lightweight.
 Superior color accuracy and vibrancy.
Disadvantages:
 Potential risk of burn-in (though modern technologies mitigate this).
 Generally, it is more expensive to manufacture.
 Limited lifespan compared to some other technologies.

 Printer - produce a hard copy of electronic documents. Common types

of printers include inkjet, laser, and dot matrix printers, each suitable
for different printing needs.

 Speaker - produce audio output, allowing users to hear sound, music,

or other audio elements from the computer. They are essential for
multimedia applications and entertainment.

 Headphones/Earphones - similar to speaker, headphone or earphone

deliver audio output directly to the user. They are commonly used for
private listening.

 Projector - it displays computer-generated images or presentations on

a larger screen or surface, making them suitable for group viewing or
presentations.

 Plotter - are specialized output devices used for printing large-scale,

high-quality graphics, such as engineering drawings and architectural
plans.
  3D Printer - create physical objects by layering material based on a
digital 3D model. They are used in various fields, including prototyping,
manufacturing, and design.

 Touchscreen - combine input and output capabilities, allowing users

to interact with the computer by touching the display directly. They are
common in smartphones, tablets, and some computers.

PROCESSING DEVICES - These are the components responsible for

interpreting and executing instructions from software.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): The main processor that performs
calculations and executes commands.
 Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): Handles rendering of images,
video, and animations, often used in gaming and graphic design.

STORAGE DEVICES: These are the devices are used to save and retrieve
data, either temporarily or permanently.
 Hard Disk Drive (HDD): HDDs are traditional, magnetic storage
devices with spinning disks and read/write heads. They are commonly
used for long-term storage of large amounts of data, such as operating
systems, applications, and user files.
 Solid-State Drive (SSD): SSDs use NAND-based flash memory to
store data electronically, providing faster read and write speeds
compared to HDDs. SSDs are often used for faster system boot times
and improved overall performance.
 External Hard Drive: An external storage device connected to the
computer via USB, Thunderbolt, or other interfaces. They provide
additional storage space and are often used for backups, data transfer,
and portable storage.
 USB Flash Drive: Also known as thumb drives or pen drives, USB
flash drives are small, portable storage devices that connect to the
computer via a USB port. They are commonly used for data transfer
and portable storage.
 Memory Card: come in various types, each designed for specific
devices and purposes. Here are the most common kinds of memory
cards:
1. SD Card (Secure Digital Card)
 Standard SD: The original SD card format, typically used in
cameras and older devices. Capacity ranges from 1 MB to 2 GB.
 SDHC (Secure Digital High Capacity): An improved version of SD
cards, offering capacities from 2 GB to 32 GB.
 SDXC (Secure Digital Extended Capacity): Supports larger
capacities ranging from 32 GB to 2 TB, commonly used in
modern cameras and devices.
 SDUC (Secure Digital Ultra Capacity): The latest SD card format,
theoretically supporting up to 128 TB, although such capacities
are still emerging.
2. MicroSD Card
  MicroSD: A smaller version of the SD card, commonly used in
smartphones, tablets, and portable gaming devices. Capacity
ranges from 1 MB to 2 GB.
 MicroSDHC: MicroSD card with higher capacity (2 GB to 32 GB).
 MicroSDXC: Extended capacity microSD card, ranging from 32
GB to 2 TB.
 MicroSDUC: The newest microSD format, potentially supporting
up to 128 TB.

3. CompactFlash (CF) Card

 Type I and Type II: Primarily used in professional cameras and
other high-end devices due to their durability and large storage
capacities, typically ranging from 2 GB to 512 GB.
 CFast: A faster version of CompactFlash, designed for high-
performance applications like 4K video recording.
4. CFexpress
 A newer and faster memory card format designed for
professional-grade cameras and video equipment, offering very
high speeds and large capacities.
5. Memory Stick
 Developed by Sony, this type of card is used in their cameras,
camcorders, and gaming devices.
 Memory Stick PRO: An advanced version with higher speed and
capacity, up to 32 GB.
 Memory Stick Micro (M2): A smaller variant used in some Sony
mobile devices.
6. xD-Picture Card
 Developed by Olympus and Fujifilm, this card was commonly
used in their digital cameras. However, it has largely been
phased out in favor of SD cards.
7. MMC (MultiMediaCard)
 An older memory card format used in early digital cameras,
mobile phones, and other devices. It has largely been replaced
by SD cards.
8. SmartMedia
 An older format that was used in early digital cameras and
portable devices. It has very low capacity (up to 128 MB) and is
now obsolete.
9. XQD Card
 A high-speed memory card format developed by Sony and Nikon,
used in professional cameras. It is being gradually replaced by
the faster CFexpress format.
10. UFS Card (Universal Flash Storage)
  A newer memory card format that offers faster read and write
speeds than microSD cards, designed for high-performance
devices like smartphones and cameras.
11. NVMe Card
 A specialized memory card format that uses NVMe (Non-Volatile
Memory Express) technology for extremely fast data transfer
rates, primarily used in professional video recording equipment.

 Optical Disc Drive (ODD): Like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs can be
used for storing data, software, or multimedia content. CD and DVD
drives are common in older computers, while Blu-ray drives are used
for high-definition content.
 Cloud Storage: It is a service model that allows users to store,
manage, and access data over the internet, rather than on a local hard
drive or physical storage device. The data is stored on remote servers,
often maintained by third-party providers, and can be accessed from
anywhere with an internet connection. (e.g. Google Drive, One Drive,
or Megan).

MEMORY (Random-Access Memory) – also known as RAM, used to

temporarily stores data and instructions that the CPU needs while performing
tasks. It is volatile, meaning its contents are lost when the computer is
turned off.

 DDR4/DDR5 RAM: Common types of memory modules used in

modern computers.

MAIN CIRCUIT BOARD – also known as motherboard that houses the CPU,
memory, and other crucial components, and connects them all together,
allowing them to communicate.

 ATX, MicroATX: Common form factors for motherboards.

POWER SUPPLY UNIT (PSU) - The power supply unit converts electrical
power from an outlet into a usable form for the computer's components,
providing the necessary power to run the system.
 Standard PSU: Found in desktops, with varying wattages.
 Laptop Power Adapters: Provide power to laptops and charge their
batteries.

NETWORKING DEVICES - Networking hardware allows computers to

connect to a network (like the internet) and communicate with other devices.
 Network Interface Card (NIC): Enables wired or wireless network
connections.
 Router: Directs data traffic between different networks.
 Modem: Converts digital data into a form suitable for transmission
over telephone lines.
COMPUTER SOFTWARE – also known as Computer Program, is a set of
instructions written in a code that Computers can understand and execute.

Types of Software:
 System Software: also known as Operating Systems (OS), is a type of
software designed to manage and control the hardware components of
a computer, providing a platform for running application software. It
acts as an intermediary between the user and the hardware, ensuring
that different software applications can run efficiently and interact with
the hardware without conflict.
Key Components of System Software:
1. Operating System (OS):
o The most critical component of system software.
o Manages hardware resources (CPU, memory, storage, etc.).
o Provides a user interface and manages system tasks such as file
management, memory management, process scheduling, and
security.
o Examples: Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, Android.

2. Device Drivers:
o Specialized programs that allow the operating system to
communicate with hardware devices.
o Each piece of hardware, like printers, graphics cards, and
network adapters, requires a driver to function properly.
o Examples: NVIDIA graphics drivers, printer drivers.

3. Firmware:
o A type of software embedded into hardware devices to provide
low-level control for specific hardware functions.
o Often stored in the device's read-only memory (ROM).
o Examples: BIOS/UEFI on computers, firmware in routers, or
embedded systems.

4. Utility Software:
o Though sometimes considered separately, utility software is
often bundled with system software.
o Assists in system maintenance, optimization, and management
tasks.
o Examples: Disk defragmenters, antivirus programs, file
managers.

5. Boot Loader:
o A small program that loads the operating system into the
computer’s memory when the system is powered on.
o It is the first software that runs when a computer starts.
o Examples: GRUB (used in Linux), Windows Boot Manager.

6. Shell:
o A command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI)
that provides an interface for users to interact with the operating
system.
o Examples: Bash in Linux, Command Prompt or PowerShell in
Windows.
  Application Software: Also known as Program, designed to perform
specific tasks, such as word processors, web browsers, and games.
 Software Development:
o Programming Languages: Basics of how software is created,
focusing on popular programming languages like Python, Java,
and C++.
o Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC): The stages of
developing software from conception to deployment and
maintenance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
The characteristics of Computer that have made them so powerful and
universally useful are:
 Speed
Computers work at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is
capable of performing about 3-4 million simple instructions per
second.
 Accuracy
In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. Errors that may
occur can almost always be attributed to human error (inaccurate
data, poorly designed system or faulty instructions/programs written
by the programmer)
 Diligence
Unlike human computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer
from human traits of boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of
concentration. Computers, therefore, are better than human beings in
performing voluminous and repetitive jobs.
 Versatility
Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any
task as long as it can be broken down into series logical steps. The
presence of computers be seen in almost every sphere — Railway/Air
reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.
 Storage Capacity
Today's computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of
information once recorded (or stored) in the computer, can never be
forgotten and can be retrieved almost instantaneously.

Four Major functions of a Computer System:

1. Input: The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
system through input devices like a keyboard, mouse, or scanner.
2. Processing: The central processing unit (CPU) processes the input
data by performing computations, logical operations, and data
manipulation.
3. Storage: The computer system stores data and instructions, either
temporarily in RAM (Random Access Memory) for quick access during
processing or permanently in storage devices like hard drives or SSDs.
 4. Output: The computer system produces output in a form that humans
can understand, such as displaying results on a monitor, printing
documents, or playing sound through speakers.

DATA - is defined as any collection of facts.

Data is a raw, unprocessed fact. It has the potential to become useful

information, but first it has to be manipulated and transformed. The best way
to do that is to feed the data into a computer. Data is what computers feed
on. You may have figured out by now that information is processed data. It
is data that has already been manipulated and transformed into something
useful.

Such as: sales reports, inventory figures, test scores, customer’s names,
addresses and reports are all examples of data.

DATA PROCESSING – is the manipulation of data into a more useful form.

 It is a modern name for paperwork and involves the collecting,

processing, and distributing of facts and figures to achieve the desired
result.
 Includes not only numerical calculations but also operations such as
the classification of data and transmission of data from one place to
another.

TYPES OF DATA PROCESSING

- which derived from different devices and procedures by which the result
is achieved

 Manual Data Processing

 Mechanical Data Processing
 Electronic Data Processing
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

 INPUT – in these steps the initial data, or input data, are prepared in
some convenient form for processing.

The form will depend on the processing machine

Example:
 When mechanical devices are used, the input data are punched
on cards;
 If electronic computers are used, the input data could be
recorded in any several types of input medium, such as card,
tapes, disks, and so on…

 PROCESSING – in this step the input data are changed, and usually
combined with other information, to produce data in a more useful
form.

 OUPUT - here the results of the preceding processing steps are

collected.
 Example: Output data may be paychecks for employees, a printed
summary of monthly sales for management, or simply data
to be stored for further processing at a later date.

EXPANDED DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

 ORIGINATION – is a step which refers to the process of collecting the
original data.
Example: The source documents for the determination of student
grades are the graded test papers of the students
 DISTRIBUTION – this step refers to the distribution of the output data.
Example: The report documents in the case of student grades is the
class grade sheet which is forwarded to the registrar.
 STORAGE – this is crucial in many data processing procedures. Data
Processing results are frequently placed in storage to be used as input
data for further processing at a later date

AREAS OF DATA PROCESSING

 BUSINESS DATA PROCESSING – is characterized by the need to
establish, retain, and process files of data for producing useful
information.
Example: A large retail store must maintain a record for each
customer who purchases on account, update balance owed on
each account, periodically present a bill to customer for
merchandise purchased. (this involves a few basic
calculations and the results are printed and mailed to the
customer collection)

 SCIENTIFIC DATA PROCESSING (SDP) – in science, data processing

involves a limited volume of input and many logical or arithmetic
calculations. Unlike business problems, most of the scientific problems
are non-repetitive, requiring a “one-time” solution.

Example:In cancer research, data on cancer patients (collected over

a period of time) are analyzed by a computer to produce a
possible cure. Although a final cure is unavailable, computer
analysis of the hundreds of variables suspected to be cancer
agents has saved hundreds of man-years of computations.
(Although scientific data may differ from business data, the
processing pattern is quite similar)
DATA PROCESSING OPERATIONS

(A data processing procedure normally consists of a number of basic

processing operations performed in some order)

1. RECORDING – refers to the transfer of data onto some form or

document.
Example: In computing gross pay, the number of hours worked are
multiplied by the hourly rate to arrive at gross pay. Gross pay
is a
n intermediate step which is retained temporarily for later use.

2. VERIFYING – since recording is usually a manual operation, it is

important that recorded be carefully checked for any errors.
 Example: punched cards and typed reports are reread for corrections.

3. DUPLICATING – this operation consists in reproducing the data onto

many forms of documents. Duplicating may be done while the data is
being recorded manually, or it may be done afterwards, by some
machines.
Example: one may record a report by typing it, at the same time
duplicating it using carbon paper. On the other hand, one may
record a sales transaction by punching the data onto a card,
and then duplicate the card by using a duplicate machine.

4. CLASSIFYING – this operation separates data into various categories.

Identifying and arranging items with like characteristics into groups or
classes.
Example: classifying is usually done by a shortened, predetermined
method of abbreviation known as coding.
Three types of code used are;
a) Numeric – a person’s social security number or student ID
number;
b) Alphabetic – grades as A, B, and C or name of persons, and
c) Alphanumeric – automobile license plate or course and year

5. SORTING – arranging data in a specific order. After the data is

classified, it is usually necessary to arrange or rearrange them in a
predetermined sequence to facilitate processing.
Example: the names in a telephone book are sorted into alphabetical
order, employee records may be sorted according to
employee’s Last Name or ID number. Sorting is done in an
alphabetic or numeric order and the data item which
determines the sorting is called the key.

6. CALCULATING – is the arithmetic manipulation of data. It is a crucial

phase of data manipulation because the outcome of this operation
becomes part of the output.
Example: In the calculation of an employee’s pay, the total number
of hours worked multiplied by the hourly wage would give the
taxable gross earnings. Payroll deductions such as Taxes,
Medicare, Union dues, Loans and other deductions are then
computed and subtracted from the gross earnings to leave
net or take-home earnings.

7. SUMMARIZING & REPORTING – in this operation, a collection of data

is condensed and certain conclusions from the data are presented in a
meaningful format. “Reducing masses of data to a more usable form is
called summarizing”
In business, summary reports are used for income-tax reporting,
preparation of profit-and-loss statements, and other reports reflecting
the activities of the business. Summarized data is printed and made
available to the user for reference or action.

8. MERGING – this operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets
having been sorted by the same key, and puts them together to form a
single sorted set of data.
Example: sales reports from different store branches are merged to
form an overall sales report for the whole business
establishment.

9. STORING – placing similar data into files for future reference

 Storage is done by any of the following:
a) Manual - such as in a ledger book;
b) Electromechanical - in the form of punched cards; and
c) Electronic - by magnetic tape, disk, and main memory of the
computer

10. RETRIEVING – recovering stored data and or information when

needed is the retrieving step. Retrieval methods range from searches
made by file clerks to the use of quick-responding inquiry terminals
that are connected directly to a computer.

11. FEEDBACK – is the comparison of the output(s) and the goal set
in advance; any discrepancy is analyzed, corrected, and feed back to
the proper stage in the processing operation.

METHODS OF DATA PROCESSING

1. BATCH PROCESSING – is a technique in which data to be processed or

programs to be executed are collected into groups to permit convenient,
efficient, and serial processing. (With this method, data is entered into the
information flow in, large volumes, or batches ‘weekly, monthly, etc’)

Advantages of Batch Processing

 economical when large volume of data must be processed and
 the most appropriate method for those applications (e.g., payroll)
where the delay caused by accumulating data into batches does not
reduce the value of the information.

Limitations of Batch Processing

 It requires sorting prior to processing.
 Reduces timeliness in some instances, it takes fixed time interval
before current data is added, and inquiries cannot be effectively
made between processing intervals.
 Requires sequential file organization, ‘this may prove to be a
handicap if the current status of a record near the end of a file
needs to be determined.

2. ON-LINE PROCESSING – the term “on-line” refers to equipment or

devices under the direct control of the central processing unit (CPU) of a
computer. Online processing has been developed for certain uses as an
answer to the batch processing deficiencies; however, on-line and direct
access of records is required unique a hardware and software. It will also
require software security provisions to prevent confidential information
from falling into unauthorized hands and prevent deliberate or accidental
tampering with data and program files.

3. REAL-TIME PROCESSING – is a method of data processing which has

the capability of a fast-response to obtain data from an activity or a
physical process, perform computations, and return a response rapidly
enough to affect the outcome of the activity or process.
Example: Airline reservation system, it requires immediate
processing. Each time a ticket is issued or cancelled, or a
plane’s schedule is altered, the data must be immediately
entered into a computer, processed and made available.
This form of processing usually uses terminals linked to a CPU via
telecommunication lines. Thus, when an on-line computer system
 operates quickly enough to facilitate the decision-making process in an
organization, we can call it a real-time system.

4. DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING - the most complex level of computer

processing, distributed processing, generally consists of remote terminals
linked to a large central computer system to help the user conduct
inquiries about accounts, process jobs, or other data processing
operations.
Distributed computer-communications network is similar in some respects
to public utilities such as telephone and electric companies.

Example: electric power plants are geographically dispersed and the

energy resources generated are transmitted through a
coordinating regional network or grid to the places where the
energy resources are needed.

COMPUTER CAPABILITIES

1) Ability to perform certain logic operations

Computers are symbol manipulations. It can manipulate in
logical ways letters, numbers, words, sentences, mathematical
expressions and other symbols to which people have given
meaning.

2) Ability to provide new time dimensions

The computer works one step at a time; it adds and subtracts
numbers; it multiplies and divides numbers; and it can be
programmed to perform other mathematical operations such as
extracting a square root

3) Ability to store retrieve information

The computer stores both facts and instructions in internal
storage. The access time required for information to be recalled
from internal storage and be available for use is measured in
microseconds or more precise units.

4) Ability to control error

It has been estimated that a person would make one error in
every 500 to 1,000 operations with a desk calculator. A
computer, on the other hand, can perform hundreds of
thousands of arithmetic operations every second and can run
errorless for hours and days at a time.

5) Ability to check itself

Computers have the ability to check their own work. By a method
known as parity checking, computers check on data when they
enter storage, when they are moved internally, and when they
leave in the form of output.

COMPUTER LIMITATIONS

1) Dependence on prepared instructions

The computers perform only what it is programmed to do and
nothing else.

2) Inability to derive meaning from objects

 A computer does not have feelings. It is unable to recognize and
respond to living objects.

3) Inability to generate information

The computer cannot generate information on its own. It is not
able to think and perceive relevant aspects of a given situation
and adopt means to fulfill a goal or course of action.

4) It cannot correct wrong instructions

A human being is likely to do what you mean and not what you
say when you don’t give enough detail. The computer on the
other hand, will do exactly what you instruct it to do, regardless
of what you mean.

WHY COMPUTERS SOMETIMES FAIL?

Computers can fail for various reasons, many of which stem from human
error, technical issues, or external threats. Here's a breakdown of the
reasons you've mentioned:
1. Input Errors
When data is entered into a computer, it needs to be accurate. Errors
in input, such as typos or incorrect data formats, can lead to incorrect
processing and output. This can result in the failure of computer
systems to perform tasks as expected.
2. Errors in Instructing a Computer
Computers rely on precise instructions (programs) written by
programmers. If these instructions are flawed, incomplete, or not
optimized, the computer may not function correctly, leading to system
failures or unexpected results.
3. Communication Gap
A common issue in computer failures is the lack of clear
communication between computer professionals (e.g., programmers,
IT staff) and the end-users who will utilize the system.
Misunderstandings or lack of proper communication can lead to the
development of systems that do not meet the users' needs or
expectations.
4. Improper Controls
Inadequate control mechanisms, such as insufficient security protocols
or poor access management, can lead to system vulnerabilities,
unauthorized access, or data corruption, causing the computer system
to fail.
5. Lack of Standards
The absence of standardized procedures, guidelines, or protocols can
lead to inconsistent practices, which might cause compatibility issues,
errors in data processing, or system malfunctions.
6. Lack of Adequate Manufacturer’s Support
If a computer system or software lacks sufficient support from the
manufacturer (e.g., no updates, poor customer service, or limited
 troubleshooting resources), it may become outdated, vulnerable to
errors, or difficult to repair, leading to potential failures.
7. Computer Viruses
Malicious software, such as viruses, can infect a computer system,
causing various issues ranging from data corruption and loss of
functionality to complete system failure. Viruses can spread quickly
and are often difficult to detect and remove.

Computer Benefits:
 Increased Productivity
 Information Management
 Improved Communication

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

 Personal Computer (PC) - refers to a category of computers that are

designed for individual or personal use.
o Desktop Computers: These are traditional computers designed to sit
on a desk. They consist of a computer case that houses the CPU,
memory, storage, and other components.
o Laptops (Notebooks): Portable computers that integrate all
components into a single unit with a foldable screen and keyboard.
Laptops are convenient for users who need mobility.
o Tablet Computer (commonly shortened to Tablet) is a mobile
device, typically with a mobile operating system and touchscreen
display processing circuitry, and a rechargeable battery in a single,
thin and flat package.
o Handheld Computer (also called Palm-sized Computer) - typically
refers to a compact computing device that can be easily held in the
hand. These devices are designed for portability and are smaller
than traditional laptops or desktop computers.
o Smartphones: Mobile devices with computing capabilities, including
phones, web browsers, cameras, and various applications.
Smartphones are highly portable and widely used for
communication and a variety of tasks.
o Smartwatch: A device that can be worn, used as fitness trackers,
which have computing capabilities to collect and process data.

 Workstation: High-performance computers designed for complex

scientific and engineering tasks. They typically have advanced
processors, large amounts of memory, and powerful graphics capabilities.

 Server: Specialized computer designed to manage network resources

and provide services to other computers (clients) on the network. Servers
can handle tasks like file storage, email, web hosting, and more.

 Mainframe Computer: Large, powerful computers capable of handling

extensive data processing for large organizations. Mainframes are known
 for their reliability, scalability, and the ability to handle multiple tasks
concurrently.

 Supercomputer: Extremely powerful computer designed for intensive

computational tasks. Supercomputers are used in scientific research,
weather modeling, simulations, and other applications that require
immense processing power.