Lecture Note 1: Concept of Computer Architecture and Organization
In describing computers, a distinction is often made between computer architecture and computer
organization. Although it is difficult to give precise definitions for these terms, a consensus exists about the
general areas covered by each (e.g., see [VRAN80], [SIEW82], and [BELL78a]); an interesting alternative view
is presented in [REDD76].
Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a programmer or, put another way,
those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples of architectural
attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent various data types (e.g., numbers,
characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory. A term that is often used
interchangeably with computer architecture is instruction set architecture (ISA) . The ISA defines instruction
formats, instruction opcodes, registers, instruction and data memory; the effect of executed instructions on
the registers and memory; and an algorithm for controlling instruction execution.
Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications. Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the
programmer, such as control signals; interfaces between the computer and peripherals; and the memory
technology used.
For example, it is an architectural design issue whether a computer will have a multiply instruction. It is an
organizational issue whether that instruction will be implemented by a special multiply unit or by a
mechanism that makes repeated use of the add unit of the system. The organizational decision may be based
on the anticipated frequency of use of the multiply instruction, the relative speed of the two approaches, and
the cost and physical size of a special multiply unit.
Historically, and still today, the distinction between architecture and organization has been an important
one. Many computer manufacturers offer a family of computer models, all with the same architecture but
with differences in organization. Consequently, the different models in the family have different price and
performance characteristics. Furthermore, a particular architecture may span many years and encompass a
number of different computer models, its organization changing with changing technology.
Instruction set,
Attributes of a system number of bits used
visible to the to represent various
programmer data types, I/O
Have a direct impact mechanisms,
on the logical Computer
Architectural techniques for
attributes
execution of a program Architecture
include: addressing memory
Organization
Computer
al attributes
Hardware details include:
Organization The operational units
transparent to the and their
programmer, control signals, interconnections that
interfaces between the realize the
computer and peripherals, architectural
memory technology used specifications
Figure 1: Architecture and Organization
CPUs with Similar Architecture but Different Organization
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• Computer Architecture defines the logical design and programmer-visible features of the processor. This
includes the instruction set (ISA), data types, registers, addressing modes, and how the CPU interacts with
memory and I/O.
• Computer Organization, on the other hand, deals with how these features are physically implemented. It
includes internal components such as the number of cores, size and levels of cache, pipelining method,
branch prediction technique, and interconnects between parts.
Two processors may use the same architecture (i.e., support the same ISA), but have different organization.
This means they understand the same instructions but differ in internal design, performance, and efficiency.
Here are examples from both RISC and CISC processors to demonstrate this concept.
1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
RISC architecture focuses on executing simple instructions very quickly. The instructions are generally fixed in
length and designed to complete in a single clock cycle. This makes decoding and executing faster.
Examples of RISC CPUs with same ISA but different organization:
CPU Model Instruction Set Architecture Organizational Differences
(ISA)
ARM Cortex-A72 ARMv8-A Standard pipeline, moderate
cache, power-efficient
design, used in Raspberry Pi 4
Apple A14 Bionic ARMv8.5-A Custom pipeline, aggressive
out-of-order execution, large
cache, advanced branch
prediction
Qualcomm Snapdragon 888 ARMv8-A 3-tier CPU (X1, A78, A55),
optimized for mobile, uses
custom interconnects
2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
CISC processors support a rich set of complex instructions, many of which can perform multi-step operations
in one instruction. The instructions vary in length and require complex decoding.
Examples of CISC CPUs with same ISA but different organization:
CPU Model Instruction Set Architecture Organizational Differences
(ISA)
Intel Core i7-8700K x86-64 6 cores, high clock speed,
ring bus interconnect,
integrated GPU
AMD Ryzen 7 5800X x86-64 8 cores, chiplet-based design,
Infinity Fabric interconnect,
unified L3 cache
Intel Xeon Gold 6230 x86-64 Server-class, supports multi-
socket, larger cache, ECC
memory support
Computer Function and Structure
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Computer Function: There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:
Data Processing. The data may take a wide variety of forms, and the range of processing requirements is
broad. However, we shall see that there are only a few fundamental methods or types of data processing.
Data Storage. Even if the computer is processing data on the fly (i.e., data come in and get processed, and
the results go out immediately), the computer must temporarily store at least those pieces of data that are
being worked on at any given moment. Thus, there is at least a short-term data storage function. Equally
important, the computer performs a long-term data storage function. Files of data are stored on the
computer for subsequent retrieval and update.
Data Movement. The computer’s operating environment consists of devices that serve as either sources or
destinations of data. When data are received from or delivered to a device that is directly connected to the
computer, the process is known as input–output (I/O), and the device is referred to as a peripheral. When
data are moved over longer distances, to or from a remote device, the process is known as data
communications
Control. Within the computer, a control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the
performance of its functional parts in response to instructions.
Computer Structure
Common personal computer structure can have:
i) simple single-processor computer
ii) Multicore computer structure
i) simple single- processor computer
Figure 1.1 provides a hierarchical view of the internal structure of a traditional single-processor computer.
There are four main structural components:
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• Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing
functions; often simply referred to as processor.
• Main memory: Stores data.
• I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
• System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main memory,
and I/O. A common example of system interconnection is by means of a system bus, consisting of a number
of conducting wires to which all the other components attach.
The major structural components of a single processor CPU are as follows:
• Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer. , there are several
approaches to the implementation of the control unit; one common approach is a microprogrammed
implementation. In essence, a microprogrammed control unit operates by executing microinstructions that
define the functionality of the control unit. With this approach, the structure of the control unit can be
depicted, as in Figure 1.1.
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data processing functions.
• Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU.
• CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU, and
registers.
ii) Multicore computer structure
When a computer have multiple processors on a single chip, the term multicore computer is used, and each
processing unit (consisting of a control unit, ALU, registers, and perhaps cache) is called a core . To clarify the
terminology following definitions are given.
■ Central processing unit (CPU): That portion of a computer that fetches and executes instructions. It consists
of an ALU, a control unit, and registers. In a system with a single processing unit, it is often simply referred to
as a processor .
■ Core : An individual processing unit on a processor chip. A core may be equivalent in functionality to a CPU
on a single-CPU system. Other specialized processing units, such as one optimized for vector and matrix
operations, are also referred to as cores.
■ Processor: A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores. The processor is the computer
component that interprets and executes instructions. If a processor contains multiple cores, it is referred to
as a multicore processor .
Figure 1.2 is a simplified view of the principal components of a typical multicore computer. Most computers,
including embedded computers in smartphones and tablets, plus personal computers, laptops, and
workstations, are housed on a motherboard. Before describing this arrangement, we need to define some
terms.
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A printed circuit board is a rigid, flat board that holds and interconnects chips and other electronic
components. The board is made of layers, typically two to ten, that interconnect components via copper
pathways that are etched into the board. The main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer is called a
system board or motherboard , while smaller ones that plug into the slots in the main board are called
expansion boards.
The most prominent elements on the motherboard are the chips. A chip is a single piece of semiconducting
material, typically silicon, upon which electronic circuits and logic gates are fabricated. The resulting product
is referred to as an integrated circuit .
The motherboard contains a slot or socket for the processor chip, which typically contains multiple
individual cores, in what is known as a multicore processor . There are also slots for memory chips, I/O
controller chips, and other key computer components. For desktop computers, expansion slots enable the
inclusion of more components on expansion boards. Thus, a modern motherboard connects only a few
individual chip components, with each chip containing from a few thousand up to hundreds of millions of
transistors.
Figure 1.2 shows a processor chip that contains eight cores and an L3 cache. Not shown is the logic required
to control operations between the cores and the cache and between the cores and the external circuitry on
the motherboard. The figure indicates that the L3 cache occupies two distinct portions of the chip surface.
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However, typically, all cores have access to the entire L3 cache via the aforementioned control circuits. The
processor chip shown in Figure 1.2 does not represent any specific product, but provides a general idea of
how such chips are laid out.
Next, we zoom in on the structure of a single core, which occupies a portion of the processor chip. In general
terms, the functional elements of a core are:
■ Instruction logic: This includes the tasks involved in fetching instructions and decoding each instruction to
determine the instruction operation and the memory locations of any operands.
■ Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the operation specified by an instruction.
■ Load/store logic: Manages the transfer of data to and from main memory via cache.
The core also contains an L1 cache, split between an instruction cache (I-cache) that is used for the transfer
of instructions to and from main memory, and an L1 data cache, for the transfer of operands and results.
Typically, today’s processor chips also include an L2 cache as part of the core. In many cases, this cache is
also split between instruction and data caches, although a combined, single L2 cache is also used.
Keep in mind that this representation of the layout of the core is only intended to give a general idea of
internal core structure. In a given product, the functional elements may not be laid out as the three distinct
elements shown in Figure 1.2, especially if some or all of these functions are implemented as part of a
microprogrammed control unit.
Essay Revision Questions
1. Differentiate between computer architecture and computer organization with appropriate examples.
2. Explain the major functions of a computer system and how each is supported by the system’s structure.
3. Using examples from RISC and CISC processors, explain how two processors can share the same ISA but
differ in organization.
4. Describe the internal structure of a single-core processor and explain the roles of its major components.
5. Define the terms CPU, core, and processor. How do these components relate to each other in a multicore
computer system?
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1. Which of the following is visible to the D. Data types
programmer and defines the logical behavior of a
computer system? 6. Which type of processor focuses on executing
simple instructions quickly and efficiently?
A. Computer organization
A. CISC
B. Instruction decoding
B. DSP
C. Control signals
C. RISC
D. Computer architecture
D. ASIC
2. Which of the following best describes the
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)? 7. What term describes a physical silicon chip that
contains one or more processing cores?
A. How registers are wired to memory
A. Core
B. The operational units used to decode data
B. Processor
C. The set of instructions and formats visible to
the programmer C. Register
D. External hardware interfaces for I/O D. ALU
3. What part of a computer system is responsible 8. Which component of a single-core CPU
for managing the performance of functional parts performs arithmetic and logical operations?
in response to instructions? A. I/O module
A. ALU B. Register
B. I/O Controller C. ALU
C. Cache D. Control unit
D. Control Unit 9. Which of the following best describes a
4. In a multicore processor, each core typically motherboard?
contains which of the following? A. A software interface
A. RAM, GPU, and cache B. A printed circuit board that houses key
B. Control unit, ALU, and registers components
C. Only ALU and I/O ports C. A multi-socket CPU
D. Hard drive and network controller D. A memory interface chip
5. Which of the following is an organizational 10. What is the main purpose of system
attribute of a computer system? interconnection in a computer?
A. Encrypt memory
A. Instruction set B. Allow multiple CPUs to be attached
C. Provide communication between CPU, memory,
B. Addressing mode and I/O
C. Cache size and pipelining D. Increase processor clock speed
