MODULE III

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

Lesson 1: Introduction to Convection

Lesson 2: Free Convection

Lesson 3: Forced convection

THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

FACULTY, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1ST SEMESTER SY 2021-2022

Module III
 84

MODULE III
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

 INTRODUCTION

Thermal convection occurs when a temperature difference exists between a

solid surface and a fluid flowing past it, Convection is essentially a process of energy
transport affected by the circulation or mixing of a fluid medium which may be a gas,
a liquid or a powdery substance. The transport of heat energy during convection is
directly linked with the transport of medium itself, and as such convection presents
a combined problem of conduction, fluid flow and mixing. This module is concerned
with brief introduction to free and forced convection; the convection rate equation,
the convection film coefficient and the different parameters affecting the convection
phenomenon.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Describe how heat is transmitted through convection.

2. Explain natural convection and forced convection.
3. Write the heat transfer rate equation, and define the convective heat
transfer coefficient
4. Understand different dimensionless numbers used in convection.
5. Solve free and forced convection problems for plates, cylinders and spheres
and tubed banks.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are three lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then answer
the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on
these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during the
face-to-face meeting.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Lesson 1

 Introduction to Convection

Introduction to Convection

Thermal convection occurs when a temperature difference exists between a

solid surface and a fluid flowing past it.

Figure 3.1 Convection Phenomena

It is well known that a hot plate of metal will cool faster when placed in front of a
fan than when exposed to still air.

For example, we know that the velocity at which the air blows over the hot plate
obviously influences the heat transfer rate. But does it influence the cooling in a
linear way? i.e. if the velocity is doubled, will the heat transfer rate have doubled?

Relation with conduction:

As shown in Figure 3.1 the velocity of fluid layer at the wall will be zero, the heat
must be transferred by conduction at that point.

Thus, we might compute the heat transfer using Fourier’s equation of conduction
i.e. 𝑞 = −k𝐴 d𝑡/d𝑥 with the thermal conductivity of fluid and the fluid temperature
gradient at wall.

Why then, if the heat flows by conduction in this layer, do we speak of “Convection”
heat transfer and need to consider the velocity of the fluid?

The answer is that the temperature gradient is dependent on the rate at which the
fluid carries the heat away; a high velocity produces a large temperature gradient,
and so on.

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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It must be remembered that the physical mechanism of heat transfer at the wall is
a conduction process.

Convection Rate Equation

➢ Also known as the Newton-Rikhman Law or Newton’s Law of Cooling
➢ The appropriate convection rate equation for the convective heat transfer
between a surface and an adjacent fluid is given by Newton’s law of cooling:

q = hA ( ts - t ) → Equation 3.1

Where:
𝑄 = Convective heat flow rate
𝐴 = Surface area exposed to heat transfer
𝑡𝑠 = Surface temperature of solid and
𝑡∞ = Temperature of the fluid (Stagnant or Undisturbed)
ℎ = The convective heat transfer coefficient or the film
coefficient or the surface conductance

➢ The heat transfer co-efficient is sometimes called the film conductance or

surface conductance because of its relation to the conduction process in the
thin stationary layer of fluid at the wall surface.

➢ Unit of Convective heat transfer coefficient:

W W Cal Btu
; ; ;
m −K
2
m −C
2
m − hr − C hr − ft 2 − o F
2 o

The value of film co-efficient is dependent upon:

1. Surface conditions: Roughness & Cleanliness
2. Geometry and orientation of surface: Plate, Tube and Cylinder placed
horizontally or vertically.
3. Thermo-physical properties of the fluid: Density, Viscosity, Specific heat,
Coefficient of expansion and thermal conductivity.
4. Nature of fluid flow: Laminar or Turbulent
5. Boundary layer configuration
6. Existing thermal conditions.

The film co-efficient (𝒉) depends on viscosity of fluid because………

The viscosity influences the velocity profile and correspondingly the energy
transfer rate in the region near the wall.

Free and Forced Convection:

With respect to the cause of fluid flow, two types of convection are
distinguished:
1. Free Convection or Natural Convection and
2. Forced Convection.

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Free Convection or Natural Convection:

When a surface is maintained in still fluid at a temperature higher or lower than

that of the fluid, a layer of fluid adjacent to the hot or cold surface gets heated
or cooled by conduction.

A density difference is created between this adjacent layer and the still fluid
surrounding it.

The density difference introduces a buoyant force causing flow of fluid near the
surface.

Heat transfer under such conditions is known as Free or Natural Convection.

Thus, “Free or Natural convection is the process of heat transfer which occurs
due to movement of the fluid particles by density changes associated with
temperature differential in a fluid.”

This mode of heat transfer occurs very commonly, some of the examples are:
1. House heating system
2. The cooling of transmission lines, electric transformers and rectifiers.

Forced Convection

Flow of fluid is caused by a pump, a fan or by the atmospheric winds.

These mechanical devices speed up the heat transfer rate.

In free convection flow velocities encountered are lower compared to flow

velocities in forced convection, consequently the value of convection co-efficient is
lower, and for a given rate of heat transfer larger area could be required.

Examples of forced convection are: cooling of I.C. Engines, Air conditioner, Heat
exchangers, etc.

The rate of heat transfer is calculated using the equation 3.1.

Typical values of convective coefficient

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Solved Problems:

Problem 16:
A motor cycle cylinder consists of ten fins, each 150 mm outside diameter and
75 mm inside diameter. The average fin temperature is 500oC and the
surrounding air is at 20oC temperature. Make calculations for the rate of heat
dissipation from the cylinder fins by convection when (i) motor cycle is
stationery and convection coefficient h:6 W/m2K (ii) motor cycle is moving at
60 km/h? and h = 75 W/m2K.

Solution:

Since both sides of each fin are exposed to the surroundings air, forced airflows over
a convective heat exchanger in a room heater, resulting in a convective heat

  
A = 10   2  ( 0.152 − 0.0752 )  = 0.265m2
 4 

The heat flow from the surface of the fluid is given by Newton’s Law of cooling:

Q = hA ( ts − t )

When the motor cycle is stationary,

Q = hA ( ts − t )

(
Q = 6W
m2 − K ) ( 0.265m ) (500 − 20) C
2 o

Q = 763.2W

When the motor cycle is moving,

Q = hA ( ts − t )

(
Q = 75W
m2 − K ) (0.265m ) (500 − 20) C
2 o

Q = 9, 6540W

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Problem 17:
Forced air flows over a convective heat exchanger in a room heater, resulting
in a convective heat transfer coefficient 1.136 kW/m2-K. The surface
temperature of heat exchanger may be considered constant at 65oC, and the air
is at 20oC. Determine the heat exchanger surface area required for 8.8 kW of
heating.

Solution:

The convective heat flow from a solid surface to the surrounding fluid is given by
Newton’s Law of Cooling

Q = hA ( ts − t )

Substituting the given data, we obtain

 kW 
8.8kW = 1.136 2  ( A )( 65 − 20 ) C
o

 m −K 

Therefore, the heat exchanger surface area is

A = 0.172m 2

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Lesson 2

 Natural Convection

Natural Convection

In natural convection, the fluid motion occurs by natural means such as

buoyancy. Since the fluid velocity associated with natural convection is relatively
low, the heat transfer coefficient encountered in natural convection is also low.

Mechanisms of Natural Convection

Consider a hot object exposed to cold air. The temperature of the outside of
the object will drop (as a result of heat transfer with cold air), and the temperature
of adjacent air to the object will rise. Consequently, the object is surrounded with a
thin layer of warmer air and heat will be transferred from this layer to the outer
layers of air.

Figure 3.2 Natural convection heat transfer from a hot body.

The temperature of the air adjacent to the hot object is higher, thus its density is
lower. As a result, the heated air rises. This movement is called the natural
convection current. Note that in the absence of this movement, heat transfer would
be by conduction only and its rate would be much lower.

In a gravitational field, there is a net force that pushes a light fluid placed in a heavier
fluid upwards. This force is called the buoyancy force.

Figure 3.3: Buoyancy force keeps the ship float in water.

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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The magnitude of the buoyancy force is the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Fbuoyancy = ρfluid g Vbody

where Vbody is the volume of the portion of the body immersed in the fluid.

The net force is:

Fnet = W ‐ Fbuoyancy
Fnet = (ρbody ‐ ρfluid) g Vbody

Note that the net force is proportional to the difference in the densities of the fluid
and the body. This is known as Archimedes’ principle.

We all encounter the feeling of “weight loss” in water which is caused by the
buoyancy force. Other examples are hot balloon rising, and the chimney effect.

Note that the buoyancy force needs the gravity field, thus in space (where no gravity
exists) the buoyancy effects does not exist.

Density is a function of temperature, the variation of density of a fluid with

temperature at constant pressure can be expressed in terms of the volume expansion
coefficient β, defined as:

It can be shown that for an ideal gas

where T is the absolute temperature. Note that the parameter βΔT represents the
fraction of volume change of a fluid that corresponds to a temperature change ΔT at
constant pressure.

Since the buoyancy force is proportional to the density difference, the larger the
temperature difference between the fluid and the body, the larger the buoyancy
force will be.

Whenever two bodies in contact move relative to each other, a friction force develops
at the contact surface in the direction opposite to that of the motion. Under steady
conditions, the air flow rate driven by buoyancy is established by balancing the
buoyancy force with the frictional force.

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Grashof Number

Grashof number is a dimensionless group. It represents the ratio of the buoyancy

force to the viscous force acting on the fluid:

It is also expressed as

where
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
β = coefficient of volume expansion, 1/K
δ = characteristic length of the geometry, m
ν = kinematics viscosity of the fluid, m2/s

Reynolds Number (Re)

It is defined as a ratio of inertia force to viscous force.

It indicates the relative importance of the inertial and viscous effects in a fluid
motion.

At low Reynolds number, the viscous effect dominates and the fluid motion is
laminar.

At high Reynolds number, the inertial effects lead to turbulent flow.

Reynolds number constitutes an important criterion of kinematic and dynamic

similarity in forced convection heat transfer.

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Prandtl Number (Pr)

It is the ratio of kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity of the fluid.

The kinematic viscosity represents the momentum transport by molecular friction

and thermal diffusivity represents the heat energy transport through conduction.

Pr provides a measure of the relative effectiveness of momentum and energy

transport by diffusion.

For highly viscous oils, Pr is quite large (100 to 10000) and that indicates rapid
diffusion of momentum by viscous action compared to the diffusion of energy.

For gases, Pr is about 1, which indicates that both momentum and heat dissipate
through the field at about the same rate.

The liquid metals (liquid sodium or liquid potassium) have Pr = 0.003 to 0.01 and
that indicates more rapid diffusion of energy compared to the momentum diffusion
rate.

The Prandtl number is connecting link between the velocity field and the
temperature field, and its value strongly influences relative growth of velocity and
thermal boundary layers.

The role played by Reynolds number in forced convection is played by the Grashoff
number in natural convection.

The critical Grashof number is observed to be about 109 for vertical plates. Thus,
the flow regime on a vertical plate becomes turbulent at Grashof number greater
than 109. The heat transfer rate in natural convection is expressed by Newton’s law
of cooling as:

Q = h A (Ts ‐ T∞)

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 3.4 Velocity and temperature profile for natural convection flow over a
hot vertical plate. Grcritical = 109
Natural Convection over Surfaces

Natural convection on a surface depends on the geometry of the surface as well as

its orientation. It also depends on the variation of temperature on the surface and
the thermophysical properties of the fluid.

The velocity and temperature distribution for natural convection over a hot vertical
plate are shown in Figure 3.4.

Note that the velocity at the edge of the boundary layer becomes zero. It is
expected since the fluid beyond the boundary layer is stationary.

The shape of the velocity and temperature profiles, in the cold plate case, remains
the same but their direction is reversed.

Natural Convection Correlations

The complexities of the fluid flow make it very difficult to obtain simple analytical
relations for natural convection. Thus, most of the relationships in natural convection
are based on experimental correlations.

The Rayleigh number is defined as the product of the Grashof and Prandtl numbers:

The Nusselt number in natural convection is in the following form:

where the constants C and n depend on the geometry of the surface and the flow.
Table 14‐1 in Cengel book lists these constants for a variety of geometries.

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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▪ The Nusselt number is a convenient measure of the convective heat transfer

coefficient.
▪ The larger the Nusselt number, the more effective the convection.
▪ The 𝑁𝑢 = 1 for a fluid layer represents heat transfer across the layer by pure
conduction.
▪ For a given Nu, h is directly proportional to thermal conductivity of the fluid
and inversely proportional to the significant length parameter.

These relationships are for isothermal surfaces, but could be used approximately for
the case of non‐isothermal surfaces by assuming surface temperature to be constant
at some average value.

Isothermal Vertical Plate

For a vertical plate, the characteristic length is L.

Note that for ideal gases, β=1 / T∞

Isothermal Horizontal Plate

The characteristics length is A/p where the surface area is A, and perimeter is p.

a) Upper surface of a hot plate

b) Lower surface of a hot plate

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Solved Problems:

Problem 18. Isothermal vertical plate

A large vertical plate 4 m high is maintained at 60°C and exposed to atmospheric
air at 10°C. Calculate the heat transfer if the plate is 10 m wide.

Solution:

We first determine the film temperature as

Tf = (Ts + T∞) / 2 = 35°C = 308 K

The properties are:

The Rayleigh number can be found:

The Nusselt number can be found from:

The heat‐transfer coefficient is

The heat transfer is

Q = h A (Ts ‐ T∞) = (7.84 W/m2-°C) (4 x 10) m2 (60 – 10) °C = 9.675 kW

Natural Convection from Finned Surfaces

Finned surfaces of various shapes (heat sinks) are used in microelectronics cooling.
One of most crucial parameters in designing heat sinks is the fin spacing, S. Closely
packed fins will have greater surface area for heat transfer, but a smaller heat
transfer coefficient (due to extra resistance of additional fins). A heat sink with
widely spaced fins will have a higher heat transfer coefficient but smaller surface
area. Thus, an optimum spacing exists that maximizes the natural convection from
the heat sink.

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 3.5 A Vertical heat sink

Consider a heat sink with base dimension W (width) and L (length) in which the fins
are assumed to be isothermal and the fin thickness t is small relative to fin spacing
S. The optimum fin spacing for a vertical heat sink is given by Rohsenow and Bar‐
Cohen as

where L is the characteristic length in Ra number. All the fluid properties are
determined at the film temperature. The heat transfer coefficient for the optimum
spacing can be found from

Note: as a result of above‐mentioned “two opposing forces” (buoyancy and

friction), heat sinks with closely spaced fins are not suitable for natural convection.

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Problem 19. Heat sink

A 12‐cm wide and 18‐cm‐high vertical hot surface in 25°C air is to be cooled by
a heat sink with equally spaced fins of rectangular profile. The fins are 0.1 cm
thick, 18 cm long in the vertical direction, and have a height of 2.4 cm from the
base. Determine the optimum fin spacing and the rate of heat transfer by natural
convection from the heat sink if the base temperature is 80°C.

Assumptions:
The fin thickness t is much smaller than the fin spacing S.

Solution:
The properties of air are evaluated at the film temperature:

Tf = (T∞ + Ts) /2 = 52.5°C = 325.5 K

At this temperature, k = 0.0279 W /m-K, ν = 1.82 x 10‐5 m2/s, Pr = 0.709, and

assuming ideal gas β = 1 / Tf = 1 / 325.5 K = 0.003072 1/K.

The characteristic length is L = 0.18 m.

The optimum fin spacing is determined

The number of fins and the heat transfer coefficient for the optimum fin
spacing case are

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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The rate of natural convection heat transfer becomes:

Problem 20.
A hot plate of 400mm x 400mm at 100°C is exposed to air at 20°C. Calculate heat
loss from both the surfaces of the plate if (a) the plate is kept vertical (b) plate
is kept horizontal. Air properties at mean temperature are ρ = 1.06 kg/m3, k =
0.028 W/m-k, Cp= 1.008 KJ/kg-k, and ν = 18.97 x 10-6 m2/s.
Use following correlations:
𝑁𝑢 = 0.125(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.33 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.72(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.25 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.35(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.25 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Lesson 3

 Forced Convection

Forced Convection Heat Transfer

Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence

of bulk fluid motion. Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced
convection depending on how the fluid motion is initiated. In natural convection, any
fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect, i.e. the rise of
warmer fluid and fall the cooler fluid. Whereas in forced convection, the fluid is
forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external means such as a pump or fan.

Mechanism of Forced Convection

Convection heat transfer is complicated since it involves fluid motion as well as heat
conduction. The fluid motion enhances heat transfer (the higher the velocity the
higher the heat transfer rate).

The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling:

q = hA (Ts − T ) → W
m2
Q = h (Ts − T ) → W

The convective heat transfer coefficient h strongly depends on the fluid properties
and roughness of the solid surface, and the type of the fluid flow (laminar or
turbulent).

Figure 3.6 Forced convection

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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It is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall, this assumption is called
noslip condition. As a result, the heat transfer from the solid surface to the fluid
layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction, since the fluid is motionless.
Thus,

The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the flow direction.
The mean or average convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface is determined
by (properly) averaging the local heat transfer coefficient over the entire surface.

Velocity Boundary Layer

Consider the flow of a fluid over a flat plate, the velocity and the temperature of the
fluid approaching the plate is uniform at U∞ and T∞. The fluid can be considered as
adjacent layers on top of each other.

Figure 3.7 Velocity boundary layer.

Assuming no‐slip condition at the wall, the velocity of the fluid layer at the wall is
zero. The motionless layer slows down the particles of the neighboring fluid layers as
a result of friction between the two adjacent layers. The presence of the plate is felt
up to some distance from the plate beyond which the fluid velocity U∞ remains
unchanged. This region is called velocity boundary layer.

Boundary layer region is the region where the viscous effects and the velocity changes
are significant and the inviscid region is the region in which the frictional effects are
negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant.

The friction between two adjacent layers between two layers acts similar to a drag
force (friction force). The drag force per unit area is called the shear stress:

where μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid kg/m.s or N.s/m2 .

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Viscosity is a measure of fluid resistance to flow, and is a strong function of

temperature.

The surface shear stress can also be determined from:

where Cf is the friction coefficient or the drag coefficient which is determined

experimentally in most cases.

The drag force is calculated from:

➢ The flow in boundary layer starts as smooth and streamlined which is called
laminar flow.

➢ At some distance from the leading edge, the flow turns chaotic, which is called
turbulent and it is characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly
disordered motion.

➢ The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region which
is called transition region.

➢ The velocity profile in the laminar region is approximately parabolic, and

becomes flatter in turbulent flow.

➢ The turbulent region can be considered of three regions: laminar sublayer

(where viscous effects are dominant), buffer layer (where both laminar and
turbulent effects exist), and turbulent layer.

➢ The intense mixing of the fluid in turbulent flow enhances heat and
momentum transfer between fluid particles, which in turn increases the
friction force and the convection heat
transfer coefficient.

Non‐dimensional Groups

In convection, it is a common practice to non‐dimensionalize the governing

equations and combine the variables which group together into dimensionless
numbers (groups).

Nusselt number: non‐dimensional heat transfer coefficient

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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where δ is the characteristic length, i.e. D for the tube and L for the flat plate.
Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid as a
result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer.

Reynolds number: ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in the fluid

At large Re numbers, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the density and
the velocity of the fluid, are large relative to the viscous forces; thus, the viscous
forces cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid (turbulent
regime).

The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical
Reynolds number. For flat plate the critical Re is experimentally determined to be
approximately Re critical = 5 x105.

Prandtl number: is a measure of relative thickness of the velocity and thermal

boundary layer

where fluid properties are:

mass density: ρ, (kg/m3)

specific heat capacity: Cp (J/kg ∙ K)
dynamic viscosity: μ, (N ∙ s/m2)
kinematic viscosity: ν, μ / ρ (m2/s)
thermal conductivity: k, (W/m∙ K)
thermal diffusivity: α, k/(ρ ∙ Cp) (m2/s)

Thermal Boundary Layer

Similar to velocity boundary layer, a thermal boundary layer develops when a

fluid at specific temperature flows over a surface which is at different temperature.

Figure 3.8 Thermal boundary layer.

➢ The thickness of the thermal boundary layer δt is defined as the distance at

which:

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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➢ The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers is
described by the Prandtl number.

➢ For low Prandtl number fluids, i.e. liquid metals, heat diffuses much faster
than momentum flow (remember Pr = ν/α<<1) and the velocity boundary layer
is fully contained within the thermal boundary layer. On the other hand, for
high Prandtl number fluids, i.e. oils, heat diffuses much slower than the
momentum and the thermal boundary layer is contained within the velocity
boundary layer.

Flow Over Flat Plate

The friction and heat transfer coefficient for a flat plate can be determined
by solving the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy equations (either
approximately or numerically). They can also be measured experimentally. It is found
that the Nusselt number can be expressed as:

where C, m, and n are constants and L is the length of the flat plate. The properties
of the fluid are usually evaluated at the film temperature defined as:

Laminar Flow

The local friction coefficient and the Nusselt number at the location x for
laminar flow over a flat plate are

where x is the distant from the leading edge of the plate and Rex = ρV∞x/μ.

The averaged friction coefficient and the Nusselt number over the entire isothermal
plate for laminar regime are:

Taking the critical Reynolds number to be 5 x105, the length of the plate xcr over
which the flow is laminar can be determined from

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Turbulent Flow

The local friction coefficient and the Nusselt number at location x for
turbulent flow over a flat isothermal plate are:

The averaged friction coefficient and Nusselt number over the isothermal
plate in turbulent region are:

Combined Laminar and Turbulent Flow

If the plate is sufficiently long for the flow to become turbulent (and not long enough
to disregard the laminar flow region), we should use the average values for friction
coefficient and the Nusselt number.

where the critical Reynolds number is assumed to be 5x105. After performing the
integrals and simplifications, one obtains:

The above relationships have been obtained for the case of isothermal surfaces, but
could also be used approximately for the case of non‐isothermal surfaces. In such
cases assume the surface temperature be constant at some average value.

For isoflux (uniform heat flux) plates, the local Nusselt number for laminar and
turbulent flow can be found from:

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Note the isoflux relationships give values that are 36% higher for laminar and 4% for
turbulent flows relative to isothermal plate case.

Problem 21:
Engine oil at 60°C flows over a 5 m long flat plate whose temperature is 20°C
with a velocity of 2 m/s. Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat
transfer per unit width of the entire plate.

Solution:

We assume the critical Reynolds number is 5x105. The properties of the oil at the
film temperature are:

The Re number for the plate is:

which is less than the critical Re. Thus we have laminar flow. The friction coefficient
and the drag force can be found from:

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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The Nusselt number is determined from:

Flow across Cylinders and Spheres

The characteristic length for a circular tube or sphere is the external

diameter, D, and the Reynolds number is defined:

The critical Re for the flow across spheres or tubes is 2x105. The approaching
fluid to the cylinder (a sphere) will branch out and encircle the body, forming a
boundary layer.

Figure 3.9 Typical flow patterns over sphere and streamlined body and drag forces.

At low Re (Re < 4) numbers the fluid completely wraps around the body. At higher Re
numbers, the fluid is too fast to remain attached to the surface as it approaches the
top of the cylinder. Thus, the boundary layer detaches from the surface, forming a
wake behind the body. This point is called the separation point.

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To reduce the drag coefficient, streamlined bodies are more suitable, e.g. airplanes
are built to resemble birds and submarine to resemble fish, Figure 3.9.

In flow past cylinder or spheres, flow separation occurs around 80° for laminar flow
and 140° for turbulent flow.

where frontal area of a cylinder is AN = L×D, and for a sphere is AN = πD2/4.

The drag force acting on a body is caused by two effects: the friction drag (due to
the shear stress at the surface) and the pressure drag which is due to pressure
differential between the front and rear side of the body.

As a result of transition to turbulent flow, which moves the separation point further
to the rear of the body, a large reduction in the drag coefficient occurs. As a result,
the surface of golf balls is intentionally roughened to induce turbulent at a lower Re
number, see Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10 Roughened golf ball reduces CD.

The average heat transfer coefficient for cross‐flow over a cylinder can be found from
the correlation presented by Churchill and Bernstein:

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where fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature

Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2

For flow over a sphere, Whitaker recommended the following:

which is valid for 3.5 < Re < 80,000 and 0.7 < Pr < 380. The fluid properties are
evaluated at the free‐stream temperature T∞, except for μs which is evaluated at
surface temperature.

The average Nusselt number for flow across circular and non‐circular cylinders can
be found from Table 10‐3 Cengel book.

Problem 22:
The decorative plastic film on a copper sphere of 10‐mm diameter is cured in
an oven at 75°C. Upon removal from the oven, the sphere is subjected to an
air stream at 1 atm and23°C having a velocity of 10 m/s, estimate how long it
will take to cool the sphere to 35°C.

Assumptions:
1. Negligible thermal resistance and capacitance for the plastic layer.
2. Spatially isothermal sphere.
3. Negligible Radiation.

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The time required to complete the cooling process may be obtained from the
results for a lumped capacitance.

Whitaker relationship can be used to find h for the flow over sphere:

where Re = ρVD / μ = 6510.

Hence,

The required time for cooling is then

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 MODULE SUMMARY

Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one portion of

the fluid with another. Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly
linked with the transport of medium itself. Depending upon the nature of forces which
cause mixing, convective heat transfer is classified as (i) free or natural convection
where temperature gradient in the fluid causes density gradient which sets the fluid
into motion, and (ii) forced convection, where motion of fluid is caused by an external
agent such as fan or pump.

The rate of heat transfer by convection from the surface of a conducting body
to the surrounding fluid is given by Q = hA ( t s − t ) where ts is the temperature of the
surface, t∞ is the temperature of fluid and A is the surface area of the body. The
parameter h is the convective heat transfer coefficient. The convective coefficient
is a complicated function of (i) geometry of the system, (ii) thermal properties of the
fluid, and (iii) characteristics of fluid flow.

Dimensional analysis and empirical correlations for free and forced

convections are used to analyze and calculate heat transfer for vertical and horizontal
plates, cylinders, spheres and tube banks.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module 3.

Now you are ready to evaluate how much you have
benefited from your reading by answering the
learning activities. Good Luck!!!

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 LEARNING TASK 3

Heat Transfer by Convection

Learning Task 3 questions will be given via Google Forms separately.

 Practice Problems

Solve the following problems.

1. The forced convective heat transfer coefficient for a hot fluid flowing over
a cool surface has been estimated to be 816 kJ/m2-oC. The fluid temperature
upstream of the cool surface is 120oC, and the surface is held at 10oC.
Determine the heat transfer, per unit surface area, from the fluid to the
surface.

2. A plate 60 cm high and 30 cm wide, having a surface temperature at 35oC,

is in contact with air at 20oC. If the observed convective heat transfer rate
is 45 W for each side, compute the average convection coefficient.

References:
1. Principles of Heat Transfer by Frank Kreith, Cengage Learning. 2018
2. Heat and Mass Transfer, 3G eLearning. 2014
3. Heat and Mass Transfer by D. S. Kumar, S K Kataria and Sons Publications.2014
4. Foundation of Heat Transfer, Incropera, Frank. John Wiley. 2013
5. Basics of Heat and Mass Transfer. Kumar, D.S. S.K. Kataria & Sons.2011

Prepared by: Recommending Approval: Approved:

THELMA T. OBILLO ROY N. LAQUIDAN LORENZO L. BACANI

Professor Program Chair Dean
August 3, 2021 August 10, 2021 August 10, 2021

Module III Heat Transfer by Convection THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering