MODULE VI

HEAT EXCHANGERS

Lesson 1: Type of Heat Exchangers

Lesson 2: Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Lesson 3: Heat Exchanger Analysis

THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

FACULTY, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1ST SEMESTER SY 2021-2022

Module VI
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MODULE VI
HEAT EXCHANGERS

 INTRODUCTION

Heat exchangers are devices that provide the flow of thermal energy between two
or more fluids at different temperatures. Heat exchangers are used in a wide variety of
applications. These include power production; process, chemical and food industries;
electronics; environmental engineering; waste heat recovery; manufacturing industry;
and airconditioning, refrigeration, and space applications. This module discusses the
different types and classifications of heat exchangers and the methods used in the analysis
of heat exchangers.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Identify the different types of heat exchangers.

2. Identify the applications of heat exchangers.
3. Describe how heat exchangers works.
4. Describe what an Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.
5. Explain what a fouling factor is and enumerate causes of fouling.
6. Derive LMTD for parallel and counter flow heat exchangers.
7. Derive expression for effectiveness of parallel and counterflow heat exchanger.
8. Analyze heat exchangers and solve problems on heat exchangers.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are three lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then answer the
exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on these
exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during the face-
to-face meeting.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Lesson 1

 Types of Heat Exchangers

Introduction

“Heat exchanger is process equipment designed for the effective transfer of heat
energy between two fluids; a hot fluid and a coolant”. The purpose may be either to
remove heat from a fluid or to add heat to a fluid.

Examples of heat exchangers:

• Intercoolers and pre-heaters
• Condensers and boilers in steam plant
• Condensers and evaporators in refrigeration unit
• Regenerators
• Automobile radiators
• Oil coolers of heat engine
• Evaporator of an ice plant and milk-chiller of a pasteurizing plant

The heat transferred in the heat exchanger may be in the form of latent heat (i.e. in
boilers & condensers) or sensible heat (i.e. in heaters & coolers).

Types of Heat Exchangers

Many types of heat exchangers have been developed to meet the widely varying
applications. Heat exchangers are typically classified according to:

A. Nature of heat exchange process:

I. Direct contact or open heat exchanger
➢ Complete physical mixing of hot and cold fluid and reach a common
temperature.
➢ Simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
➢ Use is restricted, where mixing between two fluids is harmful.

Examples:
(i) Water cooling towers - in which a spray of water falling from the top
of the tower is directly contacted and cooled by a stream of air flowing
upward and
(ii) Jet condensers.

II. Regenerators

➢ In a regenerator the hot fluid is passed through a certain medium called

“matrix”, serves as a heat storage device.
➢ The heat is transferred and stored in solid matrix and subsequently transferred
to the cold fluid.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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➢ The effectiveness of regenerator depends upon the heat capacity of the

regenerating material and the rate of absorption and release of heat.
➢ In a fixed matrix configuration, the hot and cold fluids pass alternately through
a stationary matrix, and for continuous operation two or more matrices are
necessary, as shown in Figure 6.1(a).
➢ One commonly used arrangement for the matrix is the “packed bed”. Another
approach is the rotary regenerator in which a circular matrix rotates and
alternately exposes a portion of its surface to the hot and then to the cold
fluid, as shown in Figure 6.1(b).

Figure 6.1(a) Fixed dual-bed regenerator (b) Rotary regenerator

III. Recuperators

➢ In this type of heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluids are separated by a wall and
heat is transferred by a combination of convection to and from the wall and
conduction through the wall. The wall can include extended surfaces, such as fins.
➢ Majority of the industrial applications have recuperator type heat exchangers.

B. Relative direction of motion of fluids

I. Parallel flow
- Hot and cold both the fluids flow in the same direction
II. Counter flow
- Flow of fluids is opposite in direction to each other
- Gives maximum heat transfer rate

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 6.2 Different flow regimes and temperature profiles

in a double-pipe heat exchanger

III. Cross flow arrangement

➢ Two fluids are directed perpendicular to each other.
Examples:
Automobile radiator and cooling unit of air-conditioning duct
➢ The flow of the exterior fluid may be by forced or by natural convection.
➢ Figure 6.3 shows different configurations used in cross-flow heat exchangers.

Figure 6.3 Different flow configurations in cross-flow heat exchanger

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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C. Mechanical design of heat exchange surface

I. Concentric tube heat exchanger

➢ Two concentric pipes.
➢ Each carrying one of the fluids.
➢ The direction of flow may correspond to parallel or counter flow arrangement as
shown in Figure 6.2.

II. Shell & tube heat exchanger

➢ One of the fluids is carried through a bundle of tubes enclosed by a shell and other
fluid is forced through shell and flows over the outside surface of tubes.
➢ The direction of flow for either or both fluids may change during its passage
through the heat exchanger.

Figure 6.4 Shell and tube heat exchanger with one shell pass
and one tube pass (1-1 exchanger)

III. Multiple shell & tube passes

➢ Single-pass:
- Two fluids may flow through the exchanger only once as shown in Figure 6.4.
➢ Multi-pass:
- One or both fluids may traverse the exchanger more than once as shown in
Figure 6.5.
➢ Baffles are provided within a shell which cause the fluid surrounding the tubes
(shell side fluid) to travel the length of shell a no. of times.
➢ An exchanger having n–shell passes and m–tubes passes is designed as n-m
exchanger.
➢ A multiple shell & tube exchanger is preferred to ordinary counter flow design
due to its low cost of manufacture, easy dismantling for cleaning and repair and
reduced thermal stresses due to expansion.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 6.5 Shell and tube heat exchangers. (a) One shell pass and two tube
passes. (b) Two shell passes and four tube passes

D. Physical state of heat exchanging fluids

The direction of flow is immaterial in these cases and the LMTD will be the same
for both parallel flow, counter flow and other flow types. Refer Figure 6.6.

I. Condenser
➢ The temperature of hot fluid will remain constant throughout the heat exchanger.
(only latent heat is transferred)

II. Evaporator
➢ The temperature of cold fluid will remain constant throughout the heat
exchanger. (only latent heat is transferred)

Figure 6.6 (a) Condensing (b) Evaporating

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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 LEARNING TASK

Name: _______________________________ Date:_________

Yr & Section: __________________________

IDENTIFICATION:
Identify the word or group of words to complete the following
statements.

1. A ________________ is a device that transfers heat from one

fluid to another.
2. In a ____________________ heat exchanger, one fluid flows
through the inside tubes while the other fluid flows through the
shell.
3. A heat exchanger is of ________________ when the two fluids
flowing along the heat the heat transfer surface move at right
angles to each other.
4. A 1-2 heat exchanger means _______pass on shell side and
________ on tube side.
5. Radiator of an automobile engine is a _______ type of heat
exchanger.

Conceptual and Conventional Questions:

1. What is meant by a heat exchanger? State the utility and
application of heat exchangers.
2. Point out the different criterion that form the basis for the
classification of heat exchangers.
3. How heat exchangers are classified?
4. Sketch a shell and tube type heat exchanger.
5. Sketch a two-shell pass, four-tube pass, reversed current heat
exchanger. Label the different parts.
6. Discuss the importance of heat exchangers for industrial use.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Lesson 2

 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U

➢ The figure below represents the block diagram of a heat exchanger.

➢ The governing parameters are:
a. Overall heat transfer co-efficient (U) due to various modes of heat transfer
b. Heat transfer surface area
c. Inlet and outlet fluid temperatures

Figure 6.7 Overall energy balance in heat exchanger

Assuming there is no loss of heat to the surroundings and potential and kinetic energy
changes are negligible.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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From the energy balance in the heat exchanger,

Heat given up by the hot fluid,

Q = Qh = mh c ph ( th1 − th 2 )

Heat picked up by the cold fluid,

Q = Qc = mc c pc ( tc 2 − tc1 )

Total heat transfer rate in the heat exchanger is given by,

Q = UA m ------- Equation 6.1

Where,
U = Overall heat transfer co-efficient between the two fluids
A = Effective heat transfer area
θm = Appropriate mean value of temperature difference or logarithmic
mean temperature difference

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

➢ A heat exchanger is essentially a device in which energy is transferred from one

fluid to another across a good conducting solid wall.

➢ The rate of heat transfer between two fluids is given by,

T
Q= and Q = UA T
 Rt

Therefore :
1 _______ Equation 6.2
UA =
 Rt

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 6.8 Thermal resistance for (a) plane and (b) cylindrical separating wall

When the two fluids of the heat exchanger are separated by a plane wall as shown in
Figure 6.8 (a), the thermal resistance comprises:

(i) Convection resistance due to the fluid film at the inner surface
1
=
Ai hi

(ii) Wall conduction resistance = ;  =x=wall thickness
kA
1
(iii) Convection resistance due to fluid film at the outer surface =
Ao ho

Therefore:

1
UA = --------Equation 6.3
1  1
+ +
Ai hi kA Ao ho

A plane wall has a constant cross-sectional area normal to the heat flow i.e.

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜

Therefore:

1
U= --------Equation 6.4
1  1
+ +
hi k ho

➢ For a cylindrical separating wall as shown in Figure 6.8 (b), the cross-sectional area of
the heat flow path is not constant but varies with radius.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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➢ It then becomes necessary to specify the area upon which the overall heat transfer
coefficient is based. Thus, depending upon whether the inner or outer area is specified,
two different values are defined for overall heat transfer coefficient U.

1
U i Ai = --------Equation 6.5

ln 
ro 
1  ri  1
+ +
Ai hi 2 kL Ao ho

Since, Ai = 2 ri L and Ao = 2 ro L
1
Ui = --------Equation 6.6
r ln  o 
r
1 i  ri 
 + ri
+
hi k ro ho

If resistance due to the material is neglected, then,

1
Ui = --------Equation 6.7
1 r
+ i
hi ro ho

Further, if the wall thickness is small; i.e. ri≈ro

1 hi ho
Ui = = --------Equation 6.8
1 1
+ hi + ho
hi ho

Similarly for the outer surface,

1
Uo = --------Equation 6.9
ro ln  o 
r
 1
ro
+  ri +
hi ri k ho

If resistance due to material is neglected and wall thickness is assumed to be very small
then we get,

hi ho
Uo = --------Equation 6.10
hi + ho

Overall heat transfer co-efficient for different applications are given in Table 6.1.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 6.1 Representative values of the overall

heat transfer coefficient in heat exchangers

Figure 6.2 Typical fouling factors

Fouling Factor

➢ Equations 6.3 to 6.10 are essentially valid only for clean and un-corroded surface.

➢ However, during normal operation, the tube surfaces get covered by deposits of ash,
soot (smoke), dirt and scale etc. This phenomenon of rust formation and deposition of
fluid impurities is called Fouling.

➢ The surface deposits increase thermal resistance with a corresponding drop in the
performance of the heat exchange equipment.

➢ Since the thickness and thermal conductivity of the scale deposits are difficult to
determine, the effect of scale on heat flow is considered by specifying an “Equivalent
Scale Heat Transfer Coefficient”, 𝒉𝒔.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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➢ If ℎ𝑠𝑖 and ℎ𝑠𝑜 denote the heat transfer coefficient for the scale formed on the inside
and outside surfaces respectively, then the thermal resistance due to scale formation
on the inside surface is,

1
Rsi =
Ai hsi

And thermal resistance due to scale formation on the outer surface is,
1
Rso =
Ao hso
With the inclusion of these resistances at the inner and outer surfaces,

1
UA =
ln  o 
r
+  i +
1 1 r 1 1
+ +
Ai hi Ai hsi 2 kL Ao hso Ao hso

Overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inner surface area,

1
Ui =
ri ln  o 
r

1 1
+ +  ri  + ri + ri
hi hsi 2 kL ro hso ro hso

Overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outer surface area,

1
Uo =
ro ln  o 
r
 1
ro
+
ro
+  ri + +
1
ri hi ri hsi 2 kL hso hso

Fouling Factor, Rf:

The reciprocal of scale heat transfer co-efficient is called the fouling factor
(Rf=1/hs). It can be determined experimentally by testing the heat exchanger in both the
clean and dirty conditions.

1 1
Rf = -
U dirty U clean

Values of typical fouling factor for different conditions are given in Table 6.2.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Important Points:

✓ The overall heat transfer co-efficient (U) depends upon the flow
rate and properties of the fluid, the material thickness and surface
condition of tubes and the geometrical configuration of the heat
exchanger.

✓ High conducting liquids such as water and liquid metals give higher
values of heat transfer co-efficient (h) and overall heat transfer
coefficient (U).

✓ For an efficient and effective design, there should be no high

thermal resistance in the heat flow path; all the resistance in the
heat exchanger must be low.

 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Answer the following items.

Conceptual and conventional questions:

1. Define the term overall heat transfer coefficient.
2. Explain the importance of the overall heat transfer conductance on
heat exchanger performance.
3. Define fouling in relation to heat exchangers. What leads to fouling?
4. What do you mean by fouling factor?
5. What are the causes of fouling?

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Lesson 3

 Heat Exchanger Analysis

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

During heat exchange between two fluids, the temperature of the fluids, change
in the direction of flow and consequently there occurs a change in the thermal head
causing the flow of heat.

In a parallel flow system, the thermal head (temperature potential) causing the
flow of heat is maximum at inlet and it goes on diminishing along the flow path and
becomes minimum at the outlet.

In a counter flow system, both the fluids are in their coldest state at the exit. To
calculate the rate of heat transfer by the expression, 𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇, an average value of the
temperature difference (i.e. LMTD) between the fluids has to be determined.

Assumptions made to derive expression for LMTD:

1. The overall heat transfer co-efficient, U is constant.
2. The flow conditions are steady.
3. The specific heats and mass flow rate of both fluids are constant.
4. There is no loss of heat to surrounding i.e. the heat exchanger is perfectly
insulated.
5. There is no change of phase either of the fluid during the heat transfer.
6. The changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible.
7. Axial conduction along the tubes of the heat exchanger is negligible.

Figure 6.9 (a) Temperature changes of fluids during counter flow arrangement

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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➢ LMTD for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

Consider heat transfer across an element of length 𝑑𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from the

entrance side of the heat exchanger as shown in Figure 6.9(a).

Let at this section, the temperature of the hot fluid be th and that of cold fluid be
tc.

Heat flow (𝑑𝑄) through this elementary length is given by,

dQ = UdA ( th − tc ) = UdA − − − − − − Equation 6.12

Where, 𝜃 = (𝑡ℎ − 𝑡𝑐), is the temperature difference between the fluids and hence
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑡ℎ − 𝑑𝑡𝑐.

Due to heat exchange, the temperature of hot and cold fluid decreases by 𝑑𝑡ℎ and
𝑑𝑡𝑐 respectively in the direction of heat exchanger length (Refer Figure 6.9(a)).

Then, heat exchange between the fluids for a given elementary length is given as,
dQ = −mh ch dth = −mc cc dtc
therefore :
dQ = −Ch dth = −Cc dtc − − − − − Equation 6.13

Where:
𝐶ℎ = 𝑚ℎ𝑐ℎ = Heat capacity of hot fluid
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑐 = Heat capacity of cold fluid
𝑚ℎ = Mass flow rate of hot fluid
𝑚𝑐 = Mass flow rate of cold fluid
𝑐ℎ = Specific heat of hot fluid
𝑐𝑐 = Specific heat of cold fluid

From equation 6.13,

dQ dQ
dth = − and dtc = −
Ch Cc
 1 1 
dth − dtc = − dQ  − 
 Ch Cc 
 1 1 
 d = −dQ  −  − − − − − − Equation 6.14
 Ch Cc 

Put value of 𝑑𝑄 from equation 6.12,

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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 1 1 
d = −UdA  − 
 Ch Cc 
d  1 1 
= −UdA  − 
  Ch Cc 

By integrating,

2
d
A
 1 1 

 
= −  UdA  − 
0  Ch Cc 
1

   1 1 
 ln  2  = −UA  −  - - - - - Equation 6.15
 1   Ch Cc 

Now total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is given by,

Q = Ch ( thi − tho )
Q = Cc ( tco − tci )

From equation 6.15,

2 t − t t −t 
ln = −UA  hi ho − co ci 
1  Q Q 
 UA
ln 2 = − ( thi − tco ) − ( tho − tci ) 
1 Q 

For counter flow heat exchanger,

1 = thi − tco and 2 = tho − tci

We get,
2 UA
ln =− 1 −  2 
1 Q

Q = −UA
1 −  2 
2
ln
1
Q = UA m − − − − − − − − − Equation 6.16

Where,

 2 − 1 1 −  2
m = = = LMTD
2 1
ln ln
1 2

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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➢ LMTD for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

Consider heat transfer across an element of length 𝑑𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from the

entrance side of the heat exchanger as shown in Figure 6.9(b). Let at this section, the
temperature of the hot fluid be 𝑡ℎ and that of cold fluid be 𝑡𝑐. Heat flow (𝑑𝑄) through this
elementary length is given by,

dQ = UdA ( th - tc ) = UdA - - - - - - Equation 6.17

Where, 𝜃 = (𝑡ℎ − 𝑡𝑐), is the temperature difference between the fluids and hence 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑡ℎ
− 𝑑𝑡𝑐.

Figure 6.9 (b) Temperature changes of

fluids during parallel flow arrangement

In parallel flow, due to heat exchange, the temperature of the hot fluid decreases by 𝑑𝑡ℎ
and the temperature of cold fluid increases by 𝑑𝑡𝑐 in the direction of heat exchanger
length (Refer Figure 6.9(b)). Then, heat exchange between the fluids for a given
elementary length is given as,

dQ = −mh ch dth = −mc cc dtc

 dQ = −Ch dth = −Cc dtc − − − − − Equation 6.18

Where,
𝐶ℎ = 𝑚ℎ𝑐ℎ = Heat capacity of hot fluid
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑐 = Heat capacity of cold fluid
𝑚ℎ = Mass flow rate of hot fluid
𝑚𝑐 = Mass flow rate of cold fluid
𝑐ℎ = Specific heat of hot fluid
𝑐𝑐 = Specific heat of cold fluid

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− From equation 6.18,

dQ dQ
dth = − and dtc = −
Ch Cc

1 1
dth − dtc = −dQ  + 
 Ch Cc 
1 1
 d = −dQ  +  − − − − − Equation 6.19
 Ch Cc 

Put value of 𝑑𝑄 from equation 6.17,

1 1
d = −UdA  + 
 Ch Cc 
d 1 1
 = −UdA  + 
  Ch Cc 

By integrating,
2
d
A
1 1

 
= −  UdA  + 
0  Ch Cc 
1

2 1 1
 ln = −UA  +  − − − − − Equation 6.20
1  Ch Cc 

Now total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is given by,

Q = Ch ( thi − tho )
Q = Cc ( tco − tci )

From equation 6.20,

2 t − t t −t 
ln = −UA  hi ho + co ci 
1  Q Q 
 UA
ln 2 = − ( thi − tho ) − ( tho − tco ) 
1 Q 

For parallel flow heat exchanger,

1 = thi − tci and  2 = tho − tco

We get,

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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2 UA
ln =− 1 − 2 
1 Q

Q = UA
(2 - 1 )
2
ln
1

Q = UA m − − − − − − Equation 6.21

Where
 2 − 1 1 −  2
m = = = LMTD
2 1
ln ln
1 2
LMTD = Log Mean Temperature Difference

➢ Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference (AMTD)

When the temperature variation of the fluids is relatively small, then temperature
variation curves are approximately straight lines (as in condenser and evaporator) and
sufficiently accurate results are obtained by taking the arithmetic mean temperature
difference (AMTD).

thi + tho tci + tco

AMTD = −
2 2
( t − t ) + ( tho − tco )
AMTD = hi ci
2
 +
 AMTD = 1 2 − − − − − Equation 6.22
2

Temperature changes of mediums during condensation and evaporation is shown

in Figure 6.6.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Correction Factors for Multi-pass Arrangements

The relation 𝜃𝑚 for LMTD is essentially applicable for the single pass heat
exchangers.

The effect of multi-tubes, several shell passes or cross flow in an actual flow
arrangement is considered by identifying a correction factor, F such that,

 2 − 1 1 −  2
m = =
2 
ln ln 1
1 2

Q = FUA m − − − − − − − Equation 6.23

F depends on geometry of the heat exchanger and the inlet and outlet temperatures of
hot and cold fluid streams.

Correction factors for several common arrangements have been given in Figures 6.10 to
6.13.

The data is presented as a function of two non-dimensional temperature ratios P and R.

the parameter P is the ratio of the rise in temperature of the cold fluid to the difference
in the inlet temperatures of the two fluids and the parameter R defines the ratio of the
temperature drop of the hot fluid to temperature rise in the cold fluid.

tco − tci thi − tho

P= and R= - - - - Equation 6.24
thi − tci tco − tci

Since no arrangement can be more effective than the conventional counter flow,
the correction factor F is always less than unity for shell and tube heat exchanger.

Its value is an indication of the performance level of a given arrangement for the
given terminal fluid temperatures.

When a phase change is involved, as in condensation or boiling, the fluid normally

remains at essentially constant temperature. For these conditions, P or R becomes zero
and we obtain 𝐹 = 1.

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering
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Figure 6.10 Correction factor plot for exchanger with one

shell pass and two, four, or any multiple of tube passes

Figure 6.11 Correction factor plot for exchanger with two

shell pass and two, four, or any multiple of tube passes

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Figure 6.12 Correction factor plot for single pass cross-flow

heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed

Figure 6.13 Correction factor plot for single-pass flow heat

exchanger, one fluid mixed and the other unmixed

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Effectiveness and Number of Transfer Units (NTU)

➢ The concept of LMTD for estimating/analyzing the performance of a heat

exchanger unit is quite useful only when the inlet and outlet temperature of the
fluids are either known or can be determined easily from the relevant data.

➢ In normal practice the useful design is however based on known fluid inlet
temperatures and estimated heat transfer coefficients. The unknown parameters
may be the outlet conditions and heat transfer or the surface area required for a
specified heat transfer.

➢ An analysis/estimate of the heat exchanger can be made more conveniently by the

NTU approach, which is based on the capacity ratio, effectiveness and number of
transfer units.

Capacity Ratio (C):

➢ The product of mass and specific heat (𝑚 × 𝑐) of a fluid flowing in a heat exchanger
is termed as the Capacity rate. It indicates the capacity of the fluid to store energy
at a given rate.

➢ “The ratio of minimum to maximum capacity rate is defined as Capacity ratio (𝑪).”

Let,

Capacity rate of the hot fluid, 𝐶ℎ = 𝑚ℎ𝑐ℎ

Capacity rate of the cold fluid, 𝐶𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐𝑐c

In parallel or counter flow, hot or cold fluid may have the minimum value of
capacity rate.
if : mh ch  mc cc
mc cc
then : C =
mh ch

if : mh ch  mc cc
mh ch
then : C =
mc cc

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For counter flow heat exchanger,

Table 6.3 Ch > Cc Table 6.4 Ch < Cc

Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger (𝝴):

➢ The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of energy

actually transferred to the maximum possible theoretical energy transfer.

Qact Actual heat transfer

= = − − − − Eqn 6.25
Qmax Maximum possible heat transfer

➢ Actual heat transfer,

Qact = mc cc ( tco − tci ) = mh ch ( thi − tho ) − − − − Eqn 6.26

➢ A maximum possible heat transfer rate is achieved if a fluid undergoes

temperature change equal to the maximum temperature difference
available. As described in Table 6.3 and Table 6.4, we may write the general
expression,

Qmax = Cmin ( thi - tci ) − − − − Equation 6.27

➢ The effectiveness of heat exchanger is then,

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mh ch ( thi − tho ) Ch ( thi − tho )

= =
Cmin ( thi − tci ) Cmin ( thi − tci )
mc cc ( tco − tci ) Cc ( tco − tci )
= =
Cmin ( thi − tci ) Cmin ( thi − tci )

If Ch > Cc

Cmin = Cc   c =
( tco − tci )
( thi − tci )
If Ch < Cc

Cmin = Ch   h =
( thi − tho )
( thi − tci )
The subscript on 𝝴 designates the fluid which has the minimum heat capacity rate.

Number of Transfer Units (NTU):

The group UA/Cmin is called number of transfer units (NTU)

UA
NTU = − − − − − − − Equation 6.28
Cmin

UA
NTU = ( if mhch  mc cc )
mc cc

UA
NTU = ( if mh ch  mc cc )
mh ch

▪ NTU is a dimensionless parameter.

▪ It is a measure of the (heat transfer) size of the heat exchanger.
▪ The larger the value of NTU, the closer the heat exchanger reaches its
thermodynamic limit of operation.

Effectiveness for the parallel flow heat exchanger:

➢ Consider heat transfer across an element of length 𝑑𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from the

entrance side of the heat exchanger as shown in Figure 6.9(b).

➢ Heat flow (𝑑𝑄) through this elementary length is given by,

dQ = UdA ( th − tc ) = UdA − − − − − − − Equation 6.29

Where, 𝜃 = (𝑡ℎ − 𝑡𝑐), is the temperature difference between the fluids and hence
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑡ℎ − 𝑑𝑡𝑐.

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In parallel flow, due to heat exchange, the temperature of the hot fluid decreases
by 𝑑𝑡ℎ and the temperature of cold fluid increases by 𝑑𝑡𝑐 in the direction of heat exchanger
length (Refer Fig. 6.9(b)). Then, heat exchange between the fluids for a given elementary
length is given as,

dQ = −mh ch dth = mc cc dtc

 dQ = −Ch dth = Cc dtc − − − − − − Eqn.6.30

From equation 6.30,

dQ dQ
dth = − and dtc =
Ch Cc
1 1
dth − dtc = −dQ  +  − − − − − Eqn.6.31
 Ch Cc 

Put the value of dQ from equation 6.29,

1 1
d = −UdA  + 
 Ch Cc 
d 1 1
= −UdA  + 
  Ch Cc 

By integrating,

Eqn. 6.32

Eqn. 6.33

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∴ Values of outlet temperatures,

Substituting this value in equation 6.33, we get,

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Eqn. 6.34

− Equation 6.34 is the effectiveness of the parallel flow heat exchanger with hot fluid
having the minimum capacity rate.
− The same relationship would result when the analysis is made with the cold fluid having
minimum capacity rate.

∴ Effectiveness of a parallel flow heat exchanger is,

Eqn. 6.35

Effectiveness for the counter flow heat exchanger:

− Consider heat transfer across an element of length 𝑑𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from the entrance
side of the heat exchanger as shown in Figure 6.9(a).
− Heat flow (𝑑𝑄) through this elementary length is given by,

Eqn. 6.36

Where, 𝜃 = (𝑡ℎ − 𝑡𝑐), is the temperature difference between the fluids and hence 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑡ℎ
− 𝑑𝑡𝑐.

− Due to heat exchange, the temperature of hot and cold fluid decreases by 𝑑𝑡ℎ and 𝑑𝑡𝑐
respectively in the direction of heat exchanger length (Refer Figure 6.9(a)).

− Then, heat exchange between the fluids for a given elementary length is given as,

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Eqn. 6.37

Eqn. 6.38

Eqn. 6.39

Eqn. 6.40

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Now, if 𝐶𝑐 < 𝐶ℎ

Therefore 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶𝑐 and 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶ℎ

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Then we get,

Eqn. 6.41

− Equation 9.41 is the effectiveness of the counter flow heat exchanger with cold
fluid having the minimum capacity rate.

− The same relationship would result when the analysis is made with the hot fluid
having minimum capacity rate.

∴ Effectiveness of a counter flow heat exchanger is,

Eqn. 6.42

Limiting values of capacity ratio, C:

− Two limiting cases of practical interest are:

1) During the process of boiling and condensation, only a phase change takes
place and one fluid remains at constant temperature throughout the
exchanger.

By definition, the specific heat represents the change of enthalpy with

respect to temperature, i.e., 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑑ℎ/dt. With temperature difference 𝑑𝑡
being zero, the effective specific heat and consequently the heat capacity
tends to infinity. In that case 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∞ and 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 /𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0. The expression for
effectiveness (both for parallel and counter flow) then reduces to,

Eqn. 6.43

2) The effectiveness is the lowest in the other limiting case of 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 /𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1,
which is realized when the heat capacity rates of the two fluids are equal.

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Solved Numerical

Problem 26:
In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is heated from 25°C to 65°C
by oil with specific heat of 1.45 kJ/kg-K and mass flow rate of 0.9 kg/s. The oil
is cooled from 230°C to 160°C. If overall Heat transfer coefficient is 420 W/m 2-
°C. Calculate following:
a) The rate of heat transfer
b) The mass flow rate of water, and
c) The surface area of heat exchanger

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY

I. Answer the following items.

1. What is Capacity Ratio?
2. Derive LMTD for parallel flow heat exchangers
3. Derive LMTD for counter flow heat exchangers
4. Derive expression for effectiveness of parallel flow heat
exchanger
5. Derive expression for effectiveness of counter flow heat
exchanger.

II. Solve this problem:

A heat exchanger is to be designed to condense 8 kg/sec of an
organic liquid (tsat=80°C, hfg=600 KJ/kg) with cooling water
available at 15°C and at a flow rate of 60 kg/sec. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is 480 W/m2-°C calculate:
a) The number of tubes required. The tubes are to be of 25 mm
outer diameter, 2 mm thickness and 4.85 m length
b) The number of tube passes. The velocity of the cooling water
is not to exceed 2 m/sec.

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 MODULE SUMMARY

A heat exchanger is a device in which two fluid streams, one hot and another cold,
are brought into thermal contact in order to affect transfer of heat from the hot to cold
fluid.
Heat exchangers are classified on the basis of:
A. Nature of heat exchange process
- direct contact or open heat exchangers
- indirect contact heat exchangers which include the regenerators and
recuperators or surface exchangers
B. Relative direction of fluid motion
- parallel flow or unidirectional flow
- counter flow and
- cross flow
C. Design and constructional features
- Concentric
- Shell and tube
- Multi-shell and tube passes, and
- Compact heat exchangers
D. Physical state of fluids
- Condensers, and
- Evaporators

Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is defined as that constant

temperature difference which would give the same rate of the heat transfer as actually
occurs under variable conditions of temperature difference. When the temperature
differences at the two ends of the heat exchanger do not differ by more than a factor of
two, the arithmetic mean temperature difference, AMTD, approximately equals the
LMTD.

The effect of multi-tubes, several shell passes or cross flow in an arrangement is

considered by identifying a correction factor. Correction factors for several common
arrangements are available in the form of charts.

Fouling refers to the formation of scale or deposit on a heat transfer surface. The
thermal coating of the deposits is much less than that of tube wall and therefore it offers
significant resistance to heat transfer. The heat transfer resistance offered by the scale
is called fouling factor. The fouling factor is zero for new heat exchanger and it increases
with time.

The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the actual heat
transfer and the maximum possible heat transfer.

The number of transfer units (NTU) is a measure of the size of the heat exchanger.

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Congratulations! You have just studied Module 6.

Now you are ready to evaluate how much you have
benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. Good Luck!!!

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References:
1. Principles of Heat Transfer by Frank Kreith, Cengage Learning. 2018
2. Mechanical Engineering (Objective). Kumar, D.S. S.K. Kataria & Sons. 2016
3. Heat and Mass Transfer, 3G eLearning. 2014
4. Heat and Mass Transfer by D. S. Kumar, S K Kataria and Sons Publications.2014
5. Foundation of Heat Transfer, Incropera, Frank. John Wiley. 2013
6. Engineering Heat Transfer 2nd ed. Rathore, M.M. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 2011
7. Basics of Heat and Mass Transfer. Kumar, D.S. S.K. Kataria & Sons.2011

Module VI Heat Exchangers THELMA T. OBILLO, PME

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering