Module 3

Torsion

Introduction
Torsion refers to the twisting of a structural member when it is loaded by couples that
produce rotation about its longitudinal axis. The moment of the couple is equal to the product of one
of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces. Torsion occurs
in many physical situations. For instance, the drive shaft of a vehicle, while it delivers power from
one point to another, is being stressed by a torsional moment. Many times a system of pulleys might
be attached to a common drive shaft and will serve to input various torques to the drive shaft. The
formulas that will be developed in this topic is limited to the stresses and deformations produced in
circular bars subjected to torsion. Examples of such bars are axles and drive shafts in machinery,
propeller shafts, drill rods, screwdrivers, and steering rods.

Objectives
After completion of this module, you should be able to:
1. Derive the stress and deformation formula and solve problems
2. Understand transmission shafts
3. Determine stress developed in flanged bolt coupling
4. Determine the stress and deformation in helical springs
 Lesson 1 – Stress and Deformation in a Circular Shaft

Derivation of Torsion Formulas

Consider a bar or shaft of circular cross section twisted by couples T acting at the ends. From
considerations of symmetry, we can show that the cross sections of the circular bars rotate as rigid
bodies about the longitudinal axis, with radii remaining straight and the cross sections remaining
plane and circular.
During twisting, there will be a rotation about the longitudinal axis of one end of the bar with
respect to the other. In Fig. 3-1, a fiber AB on the outside surface, which is originally straight, will be
twisted into a helix AC as the shaft is twisted through the angle ϴ .

Consider any internal fiber located a radial distance ρ from the axis of the shaft. Since the
projection upon a transverse section of straight radial lines in the section remains straight, the radius
of such a fiber also rotates through the angle ϴ, causing a total shearing deformation δs equal to DE.
The length of this deformation is the arc of a circle whose radius is ρ and which is subtended by the
angle of ϴ radians; the length is given by
δs = DE = ρϴ
The unit deformation of this fiber is

The shearing stress at this typical fiber is determined from Hooke‟s law to be

This equation may be called the equation of compatibility, since the stresses expressed by it are
compatible with the elastic deformations. Note that each of the terms in the parentheses in this
equation is a constant that does not depend on the particular internal fiber chosen for analysis; the
product of these terms represents a constant. Therefore, we conclude that the shearing stress at any
internal fiber is determined by the product of a constant and a variable radial distance; that is, the
stress distribution along any radius varies linearly with the radial distance from the axis of the shaft.
For the stress variation along the radius OB, the maximum stress occurs at the outside fiber.
Figure 3-2 shows the free-body diagram of the left portion when the shaft is divided into two
segments by the cutting plane M-N. A differential area of section M-N at a radial distance from the
axis of the shaft carries the differential resisting load dP = τdA. By considering an area infinitesimally
small, we may assume the stress to be uniform over such area. Since the function of this resisting load
dP is to produce resistance to the applied torque T, the load must be directed perpendicular to the
radius ρ in order to produce the maximum effect.

To satisfy the condition of static equilibrium, we apply Σ M = 0, or the fact that the applied
torque T is equal to the resisting torque Tr. The resisting torque Tr is the sum of the resisting torques
developed by all differential loads dP.

Replacing τ by its value from Equation 3.1 gives

or since ∫ρ2dA = J, the polar moment of inertia of the cross section,

This is usually written

By replacing the product Gϴ/L in Equation 3.1 by its equivalent value T/J from Equation 3.2, we
obtain

Equation 3.3 is called the torsion formula.

The formula that determines the maximum shearing stress is a more common form of the
torsion formula. It is obtained by replacing ρ by the radius r of the shaft.
 Note that since Hooke’s Law was used in deriving these equations, the stresses must not
exceed the proportional limit; also, these formulas are applicable only to circular shafts, either solid
or hollow. The values of polar moments of inertia for circular shafts are the following:

𝜋𝐷4
For solid shaft: J=
32

𝜋(𝐷4 −𝑑4 )
For hollow shaft: J=
32
Using these values, we obtain the following modifications of the torsion formula:

In many practical applications, shafts are used to transmit power. From dynamics, it is known that
the power P transmitted by a constant torque T rotating at a constant angular speed ω is given by
P=Tω
where ω is measured in radians per unit time. If the shaft is rotating with a frequency of f
revolutions per unit time, ω = 2𝜋f, and we have

P =2𝜋𝑓𝑇 Equation 3.5

𝑃
Thus, the torque can be expressed as T =2𝜋𝑓

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A steel shaft 3 ft long that has a diameter of 5 in. is subjected to a torque of 15 kip·ft. Determine
the
maximum shearing stress and the angle of twist. Use G = 12 × 10 6 psi.
Solution:
𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛
16𝑇 16 ( 15 𝑘𝑖𝑝−𝑓𝑡)(1000𝑘𝑖𝑝)(12𝑓𝑡)
τmax = =
𝜋D3 𝜋 (4 3 ) 𝑖𝑛3

τmax = 14324 lb/in2 or psi

𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛2
𝑇𝐿 15 𝑘𝑖𝑝−𝑓𝑡 ( 3𝑓𝑡)(1000 )(144 2)
𝑘𝑖𝑝 𝑓𝑡
ϴ= = 𝜋
𝐽𝐺 (4 4 ) 𝑖𝑛4 (12 𝑥 106 )𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2
32
 1800
ϴ = 0.0215 radians ( )
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
ϴ = 1.230

2. A solid steel shaft 5 m long is stressed at 80 MPa when twisted through 4°. Using G =
83 GPa, compute the shaft diameter. What power can be transmitted by the shaft at 20 Hz?
Solution:
𝑇𝐿
ϴ= 𝐽𝐺
1000𝑚𝑚
π 𝑇 (5𝑚)( )
𝑚
40( ) = 𝜋 4 )(83000 𝑁)
180 (𝐷
32 𝑚𝑚

T = 0.1138 D4
16𝑇
τmax = 𝜋D3
16 ( 0.1138 𝐷 4 )
80 N/mm2 =
𝜋𝐷 3

D = 138 mm
𝑃
T = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑃
0.1138 D4 =
2𝜋( 20)

Substitute D = 138 mm and 20 Hz = 20 rev/sec

P = 5.19 MW

3. A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 Hz without exceeding a shearing stress

of 50 MPa or twisting through more than 1° in a length of 26 diameters. Compute the
proper diameter if G = 83 GPa.
Solution:
𝑃 4.5 ( 1000000)
T = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋(3)

T = 238,732.41 N-m
Based on maximum allowable shearing stress:
16𝑇
τmax = 𝜋D3
16 ( 238,732.41 N−m)
50 x106 N/m2= π𝐷3
D = 0.28971 m
D = 289.71 mm
Based on maximum allowable angle of twist:
 𝑇𝐿
ϴ=
𝐽𝐺
𝜋 (238,732.41 N−m (26D)
10 ( )= 𝜋 4 N
180𝑜 (D )(83 𝑥 109 2)
32 m

D = 0.35208 m
D = 352.08 mm
Use bigger diameter to satisfy both criteria, D = 352.08 answer

𝑇𝑟
✓ Maximum Shear stress, τmax =
𝐽
𝑇𝐿
✓ Angle of twist, ϴ =
𝐽𝐺
✓ Power, P = 2𝜋𝑓𝑇
 Lesson 2 – Transmission Shafts

Power Transmission by shafts

Power is defined as the time rate of doing work, that is, the amount of work done in a unit of
time. Work is done when a force displaces a body. The measure of work done by a force is the
product of the force and the displacement.
A shaft rotating with a constant angular velocity ω (in radians per second) is being acted by
a twisting moment T. The power transmitted by the shaft is

P =Tω = 2𝝅Tf

where, P = power
T = torque
ω = angular velocity
f = frequency or number of revolutions per second

Consider the following definitions related to shafts.

Shaft – a rotating member transmitting power
Axle – a stationary member carrying rotating wheels, pulleys, etc.
Spindle – a short shaft or axle on machines.
Machine shaft- a shaft which is an integral part of the machine
Transmission shaft – shaft which is used to transmit power between the source and the
machine
absorbing the power.

Relation of Power, Torque and Speed

P = 2𝝅𝑻𝑵 and T =Fr

where, P = power transmitted

T = torque
N = speed
F = transmitted load or tangential force
r = radius

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A 2 inch solid shaft is driven by a 36 inch gear and transmits power at 120 rpm. If the allowable
shearing
stress is 12 ksi, what horsepower can be transmitted?

Solution:
16𝑇
τ=
𝜋D3
 16𝑇
12,000 lb/in2 =
π(2in)3
T = 18,850 in-lb

P = 2πTN = 2𝜋(18,850) in-lb (120 rev/min)

in−lb 1 ft 1𝐻𝑃
P = 14212565.16 x x
min 12in 33,000𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏/𝑚𝑖𝑛
P= 35.89 HP

2. The engine of a large ship deliver 11200 kW to a hollow propeller shaft at 150 rpm. a) Design the
shaft
with inside diameter d equal to ¾ of the outside diameter D. b) if shaft is 30m long, what will be
the
angle of twist ϴ? Allowable shearing stress is 70MPa and G = 83GPa

Solution:
𝑇𝑟 𝜋(𝐷4 −𝑑4 )
τmax = 𝐽 , with r = D/2 and J=
32
(for hollow shaft)

3 81
𝜋(𝐷4−( 𝐷)4 )
4
𝜋(𝐷4 − 256𝐷4 )
J= =
32 32

Solving for T from P =2πTN

1 min
11,200 kN-m/sec = 2πT (150 rev/min) x
60 sec
T = 713.014 kN-m

Taking into consideration 𝜏 = 70 MPa then,

𝐷
(713.014kN−m) 2
70,000 kN/m2 = 81 4
𝜋(𝐷4 − 𝐷 )
256
32

D = 0.423m =423mm (outside diameter)

Since d = ¾ D, then

d = (3/4) 423mm = 317mm (inside diameter)

Solving for the angle of twist ϴ

𝑇𝐿 713.014 𝑘𝑁−𝑚 ( 30𝑚) 1800

ϴ= 𝐽𝐺
= 𝜋((.423)4−( .317)4 )𝑚4 𝑘𝑁
x 𝜋
𝑥 83 𝑥 106
32 𝑚2
ϴ = 6.860
3. The steel shaft shown rotates at 4 Hz with 35 kW taken off at A, 20 kW removed at B, and
55 kW applied at C. Using G = 83 GPa, find the maximum shearing stress and the angle of rotation
of gear
A relative to gear C.

Solution:
𝑃
T=
2𝜋𝑓
−35(1000)
TA = = -1392. 6 N-m
2𝜋(4)
−20(1000)
TB = = 795.8 N-m
2𝜋(4)

55(1000)
TC =
2𝜋(4)
= 2188.4 N-m

Solving it relative to C:

16𝑇
τmax = 𝜋D3

16(1392.6)(1000)
τAB = = 42.63MPa
𝜋(55)3

16(2188.4)(1000)
τBC = 𝜋(65)3
= 40.58MPa

Therefore, τmax = τAB = 42.63 MPa

𝑇𝐿
ϴ=
𝐽𝐺

1 𝑇𝐿
ϴA/C= ∑
𝐺 𝐽

1 1392.6(4) 2188.4(4)
ϴA/C= [ + 1 ](1000)2
83000 1 (𝜋)( 554) (𝜋)( 654)
32 32
 1800
ϴA/C = 0.1047965853 rad x
𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑

ϴA/C = 6.0040

4. A 5-m steel shaft rotating at 2 Hz has 70 kW applied at a gear that is 2 m from the left end where
20 kW are removed. At the right end, 30 kW are removed and another 20 kW leaves the shaft at 1.5
m from the right end. (a) Find the uniform shaft diameter so that the shearing stress will not exceed
60 MPa. (b) If a uniform shaft diameter of 100 mm is specified, determine the angle by which one end
of the shaft lags behind the other end. Use G = 83 GPa.

Solution:
𝑃
T=
2𝜋𝑓

−20(1000)
TA =TC = = -1591. 55 N-m
2𝜋(2)
70(1000)
TB = = 5570.42 N-m
2𝜋(2)
−30(1000)
TD = = -2387.32 N-m
2𝜋(2)

For Part a)
16𝑇
τmax = 𝜋D3

For AB
16(1591.55)(1000)
60 =
𝜋𝐷 3
D = 51.3mm

For BC

16(3978.87)(1000)
60 =
𝜋𝐷 3
D = 69.6mm
 For CD
16(2387.32)(1000)
60 =
𝜋𝐷 3
D = 58.7mm

Thus, Use D = 69.6mm

For Part b)
𝑇𝐿
ϴ=
𝐽𝐺

1
ϴD/A= ∑ 𝑇𝐿
𝐽𝐺
1
ϴD/A= 𝜋 [−1591.55(2) + 3978.87(1.5) + 2387.32(1.5)]10002
(1004 )83000
32
1800
ϴD/A= 0.007813 rad x
𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑

ϴD/A = 0.4480

Statically Indeterminate Shafts

This condition exists when too many support conditions and not enough equations of static
equilibrium. Or too many redundant members to carry the applied loads. To solve this, you must
generally augment conditions of static equilibrium with knowledge of how the indeterminate system
deforms. This is called the kinematic constraint. You can use the principle of linear superposition to
solve these systems.
Alternative Solution Using Principle of Superposition:
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. The shaft is made from a solid steel section AB and a tubular portion made of steel and having a
brass core. If it is fixed to a rigid support at A, and a torque of T=50lb.ft is applied to it at C, determine
the angle of twist that occurs at C and compute the maximum shear and maximum shear strain in the
brass and steel. Take Gst = 11.5(10)3 ksi and Gbr = 5.6(10)3 ksi

Solution:

Along the length of the shaft the internal

torque is T=50∙lbft.
In the composite section of the shaft,

T=Tst + Tbr =-50lb-ft. (Eq. 1)

Kinematic constraint in the composite

section CB:

(ϴC/B) st = (ϴC/B)br (Eq. 2)

Tst LBC Tbr LBC

(JG)st
= (JG)br

π
(JG) ((2in)4 −(1in)4 ))(11.5x103 )ksi
Tst = Tbr (JG) st = Tbr [32 π ]
br (1in)4 (5.6x103 )ksi
32

Tst = 30.8 Tbr

Substitute this value in Eq. 1

30.8 Tbr + Tbr = -50lb-ft

Tbr =1.57 lb-ft
Tst = 48.43 lb-ft

TBA LBA (−600lb−in)(36in)

(ϴB/A) = (JG)AB
= π
(2in)4 (11.5x106 )psi
32
 (ϴB/A) = - 0.001196 rad

T
BC LBC (−48.43x12lb−in)(24in)
(ϴC/B) = (JG) = π
steel ((2in)4 −(1in)4 ))(11.5x106 )psi
32

(ϴC/B) = -0.000824 rad

Solving for the angle of twist, (ϴC/A)

(ϴC/A) = (ϴB/A) + (ϴC/B)

(ϴC/A) = -0.00202rad

𝑇𝑟
In segment BC, τmax =
J
48.43 𝑥12 𝑙𝑏−𝑖𝑛 (1 𝑖𝑛)
τsteel = π ((2in)4−(1in)4))
32

(τmax) steel = 394.64 psi

In segment BC
τbronze =1.57 x12
π
lb−in (0.5in)
(0.5in)4
32
(τmax) bronze = 95.95 psi

2. A hollow bronze shaft of 3 in. outer diameter and 2 in. inner diameter is slipped over a solid steel
shaft 2 in. in diameter and of the same length as the hollow shaft. The two shafts are then fastened
rigidly together at their ends. For bronze, G = 6 × 106 psi, and for steel, G = 12 × 106 psi. What torque
can be applied to the composite shaft without exceeding a shearing stress of 8000 psi in the bronze
or 12 ksi in the steel?

Solution:

Applied Torque = Resisting Torque

T = Tst + Tbr Eq. 1
ϴst =ϴbr Eq. 2

𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
(𝐽𝐺) steel = (𝐽𝐺) bronze
𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝐿 𝑇𝑏𝑟 𝐿
𝜋 4 =𝜋 4 4
2 (12𝑥10 ) 32(3 −2 )(6 𝑥106 )
6
32

Tst = 0.4923 Tbr

Tbr = 2.031 Ts
Substitute Ts in Eq 1.

T = 0.4923Tbr + Tbr
T = 1.4923 Tbr
Tbr =0.6701T
 Express T in terms of Ts, still from Eq. 1
T = Tst + 2.031Tst
Tst = 0.3299T

16𝑇
Based on steel core, τmax = and Tst = 0.3299T
𝜋D3
16𝑇
τmax = 𝜋D3
16(0.3299𝑇)
12,000 lb/in2 =
𝜋(2)3
T =57,137.18 in-lb

16𝑇𝐷
Based on Hollow bronze, τmax = and Tbr = 0.6701T
𝜋(D4 −𝑑 4 )

16(0.6701𝑇)(3)
8000 lb/in2 =
𝜋(34 −24 )
T = 50,789.32 in-lb

Therefore, use T = 50,789.32

3. The compound shaft shown is attached to rigid supports. For the bronze segment AB, the diameter
is 75 mm, τ ≤ 60 MPa, and G = 35 GPa. For the steel segment BC, the diameter is 50 mm, τ ≤ 80 MPa,
and G = 83 GPa. If a = 2 m and b = 1.5 m, compute the maximum torque T that can be applied.

Solution:
T = Tst + Tbr Eq. 1
ϴst =ϴbr Eq. 2
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
(𝐽𝐺) steel = (𝐽𝐺) bronze

Tst (1.5)(1000) Tbr (2)(1000)

π = π
504 (83000) (754 )(35000)
32 32

Ts = 0.6246Tbr Eq 2a
Tbr = 1.6011Tst Eq 2b

16𝑇
τmax = 𝜋D3

Based on bronze; τ ≤ 60 MPa

16𝑇
60,000 kN/m2 =
𝜋(.075)3
Tbr = 4.97 kN-m (max torque for bronze)

From Eq 2a
Ts = 0.6246Tbr
Ts = 3.104kN-m
 Based on steel; τ ≤ 80 MPa
16𝑇
80,000 kN/m2 =
𝜋(.050)3
Tst = 1.963 kN-m (max torque for steel)

From Eq 2b
Tbr = 1.6011Tst
Tbr = 3.143 kN-m

From Eq.1
T = Tst + Tbr

Use Tbr = 3.142 kN·m and Tst = 1.963 kN·m

T = 1.963 kN-m + 3.142 kN-m
T = 5.105 kN-m

4. A compound shaft consisting of a steel segment and an aluminum segment is acted upon by two
torques as shown. Determine the maximum permissible value of T subject to the following
conditions: τst ≤ 83 MPa, τal ≤ 55 MPa, and the angle of rotation of the free end is limited to 6°. For
steel, G = 83 GPa and for aluminum, G = 28 GPa.

Solution:

16𝑇
Based on maximum shearing stress, τmax = 3
𝜋D
Based on steel:
16(3T)
τsteel = π(50)3 = 83
T = 679042.16 N-mm
T = 679.04 N-m

Based on aluminum
16(T)
τaluminum = π(40)3 = 55
T = 691150.38 N-mm
T = 691.15 N-m

Based on maximum angle of twist, ϴmax =60

TL TL
ϴ=( )st +( )al
JG JG
𝜋 3𝑇(900) 𝑇(600)
60 x 1800 = 𝜋 +𝜋
(504)(83000) (404)(28000)
32 32
T = 757316.32 N-mm
T = 757.32 N-m

Use the least value of T, thus T = 679.04N-m

✓ Power, P =Tω = 2𝝅Tf

✓ Power Transmitted, P = 2𝝅𝑻𝑵

 Lesson 3 – Flanged Bolt Couplings

Coupling is a mechanical device which is used to connect lengths of shafts permanently.

It has two main types:

1) Rigid couplings – are couplings that do not allow angular, axial or rotational flexibility
and they are used for collinear shafts.
a) Flanged Coupling – type of rigid coupling which consists of two halves of flanges

connected to each other by bolts.

b) Sleeve or collar coupling – rigid coupling which is a cylindrical collar pressed
over the ends of two collinear shafts.

2) Flexible couplings – are couplings which allow angularity to take care of misalignment
of the shafts. Oldham coupling, flexible disc coupling, flexible gear type coupling, universal
joints are examples of flexible couplings.

In this lesson, you are going to learn about flanged bolt couplings. A commonly used connection
between two shafts is a flanged bolt coupling. It consists of flanges rigidly attached to the ends of
the shafts and bolted together as shown in the figure below. The torque is transmitted by a
shearing froce P created in the bolts.

Assuming that the stress is uniformly distributed, the load in any bolt is given by the
𝜋𝑑 2
simple stress equation P= Aτ and equals ( )𝜏. It acts through the center of the bolt and tangent
4
to the bolt circle. Therefore, for any number of bolts n, the torque capacity of the coupling is
expressed by:

𝜋𝑑 2
T = PRn = ( )𝜏Rn
4
 If the coupling has two concentric rows of bolts, the torque capacity
is;

T = P1R1n1 + P2R2n2

where the subscript 1 refer to bolts on the outer circle and

subscript 2 refer to bolts on the inner circle. See figure.

For rigid flanges, the shear deformations in the bolts are proportional to their radial
distances from the shaft axis. The shearing strains are related by

γ1 γ
= R2
R1 2

𝜏
Using Hooke’s Law for shear, G = , you will have
𝛾

τ1 τ2 P1 /𝐴1 P2 /𝐴2
= or =
G1 R1 G2 R2 G1 R1 G2 R2

If the bolts on the two circles have the same area, A1 = A2, and if the bolts are made of the
same material, G1 = G2, the relation between P1 and P2 reduces to

P1 P
= R2
R1 2

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten 25-mm diameter bolts spaced evenly around a bolt circle
400 mm in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the allowable shearing
stress in the bolts is 40 MPa.

Solution:
𝜋𝑑 2
T = PRn = ( )𝜏Rn
4
𝜋𝑑 2
T=( )𝜏Rn
4

π(25)2 mm2 N
T=( )(40 )(200mm)(10)
4 mm2

T = 39.27 kN-m
2. A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten steel ½ -in.-diameter bolts spaced evenly around a bolt
circle 14 in. in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the allowable shearing
stress in the bolts is 7000 psi.

Solution:
𝜋𝑑 2
T = PRn = ( )𝜏Rn
4
𝜋𝑑 2
T=( )𝜏Rn
4

π(0.5)2 in2 lb
T=( )(7000 2 )(7in)(10)
4 in

T = 30625𝜋 lb-in
T = 8017.61 lb-ft

3. A flanged bolt coupling consists of eight 12-mm-diameter steel bolts on a bolt circle 400 mm in
diameter, and six 12-mm-diameter steel bolts on a concentric bolt circle 300 mm in diameter, as
shown. What torque can be applied without exceeding a shearing stress of 60 MPa in the bolts?

Solution:

For one bolt in the outer circle:

𝜋𝑑 2
P1= Aτ = ( )𝜏
4

π(12)2 mm2
P1 =( )(60 N/mm2 )
4

P1 = 2160π N

For one bolt in the inner circle

P1 P
= R2
R1 2

2160𝜋 2 P
= 150
200

P2 = 1620𝜋 N

T = P1R1n1 + P2R2n2
T = 2160π N(200mm) (8) + 1620𝜋 N (150mm) (6)
T = 15437786.3 N-mm
T = 15.44 kN-m

4. A torque of 700 lb-ft is to be carried by a flanged bolt coupling that consists of eight ½-in.-
diameter steel bolts on a circle of diameter 12 in. and six ½-in.-diameter steel bolts on a circle of
diameter 9 in. Determine the shearing stress in the bolts.

Solution:

P1 P
= R2 , taking into consideration that P=Aτ, and G1=G2 since both are made of
R1 2

steel, then
A𝜏1 A𝜏2
= , since both bolt circle diameter consists of ½ inch diameter bolts, then
R1 R2

A1=A2
𝜏1 𝜏
= R2
R1 2

𝜏1 𝜏2
=
6 4.5

τ2 = 0.75τ1

T = P1R1n1 + P2R2n2 with P=Aτ, then

T = A1τ1R1n1 + A2τ2R2n2

π(0.5)2 in2 π(0.5)2 in2

T=( )(τ1 )(6in)(8) + ( )(τ2 )(4.5in)(6) , with τ2 = 0.75τ1
4 4

12 in π(0.5)2 in2 π(0.5)2 in2

700 lb-ft ( )=( ) (𝜏1 )(6𝑖𝑛)(8) +( ) (0.75τ1 )(4.5in)(6)
1 ft 4 4

τ1 = 626.83 psi (shearing stress for bolts in the outer circle)

τ2 = 0.75τ1 = 0.75 (626.83 psi)

τ2 = 470.12 psi (shearing stress for bolts in the inner circle)

 Lesson 4 – Helical Springs

Spring is an elastic machine element that stores energy and when released will recover to its basic
form or position.

Uses of springs include the following:

1. To absorb energy or shock loads, as in automobile shock absorbers
2. To maintain contact between machine members, as in valves and clutches
3. To act as source of energy, as in clocks
4. To serve as measuring device, as in spring scales.

Types of spring includes helical compression, tension and torsion, conical, spiral disc and
leaf spring. However, in this module you will learn about helical springs.

Materials for spring are oil-tempered wire, music wire, hard-drawn spring wire, carbon
steel, chrome-vanadium, chrome-silicon-steel, stainless-steel.

When close-coiled helical spring, composed of a wire of round rod of diameter d wound
into a helix of mean radius R with n number of turns, is subjected to an axial load P produces the
following stresses and elongation:

The maximum shearing stress is the sum of the direct shearing stress τ1 = P/A and the
torsional shearing stress τ2 = Tr/J, with T = PR.

𝜏 = τ1 + τ2
𝑃 16𝑃𝑅
𝜏=𝜋 +
(𝑑2 ) 𝜋𝑑3
4
This may be written as,

16PR d
τ= π d3
(1 +
4R
) ( approximate formula)

This formula neglects the curvature of the spring. This is used for light spring where the
ratio d/4R is small.

For heavy springs and considering the curvature of the spring, A.M. Wahl formula a
more precise, it is given by:
16PR 4𝑚−1 0.615
τ= 3 (πd
+
4𝑚−4
) ( exact formula)
m
 where m is the spring index and m= 2R/d = D/d, the ratio of the mean diameter of the
spring to the diameter of the spring wire and (4m-1)/(4m-4) is the Wahl factor.

The elongation of the bar δ is given by the equation,

64PR3 n
δ= Gd4

Notice that the deformation δ is directly proportional to the applied load P. The ratio
of P to δ is called the spring constant k and is equal to;

P Gd4
k= =
δ 64R3𝑛

Springs in Series

For two or more springs with spring laid in series, the resulting spring constant k is
given by

P1 , δ1 P2 , δ2

P = P1 = P2

δT = δ 1 + δ2
1 1 1
=𝑘 +𝑘 where ke is equivalent spring rate and k1 and k2 are the
𝑘𝑒 1 2
spring
constants for different springs.
Springs in Parallel

For two or more springs in parallel, the resulting spring constant is

P1 , δ1
δ1 = δ2 = δ3
P2 , δ2 P = P1 + P2 + P3
ke = k1 + k2 + k3
P3 , δ3

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a helical steel spring composed of
20 turns of 20-mm-diameter wire on a mean radius of 90 mm when the spring is supporting a
load of 1.5 kN. Use G = 83 GPa.

Solution:
Using exact formula

16PR 4𝑚−1 0.615

τ= ( 4𝑚−4 + )
π d3 m

where: P = 1.5 kN = 1500N

d = 20mm
n = 20 turns
m = 2R/d = 2(90)/20 = 9

16( 1500kN)(90mm) 4(9)−1 0.615

τmax = ( 4(9)−4 + )
π (20)3𝑚𝑚3 9

τmax = 99.87 MPa

64PR3 n
δ= Gd4

64(1500N)(90)3 20
δ= 83000(20)4

δ = 105.4 mm
2. A helical spring is fabricated by wrapping wire 3/4 in. in diameter around a forming cylinder 8
in. in diameter. Compute the number of turns required to permit an elongation of 4 in. without
exceeding a shearing stress of 18 ksi. Use approximate formula and G = 12 × 10 6 psi.

Solution:

16PR d
τ= (1 + )
π d3 4R

16P(4 in) 0.75in

18,000 lb/in2 = (1 + )
π (0.75)3 𝑖𝑛3 4(4in)
P = 356.07 lb

64PR3n
δ= Gd4

64(356.07 lb)(4)3 n
4in =
12 x 106 (0.75)4

n = 10.41 turns

3. Two steel springs arranged in series as shown in the figure supports a load P. The upper spring
has 12 turns of 25-mm-diameter wire on a mean radius of 100 mm. The lower spring consists of
10 turns of 20-mm diameter wire on a mean radius of 75 mm. If the maximum shearing stress in
either spring must not exceed 200 MPa, compute the maximum value of P and the total elongation
of the assembly. Use exact formula and G = 83 GPa. Compute the equivalent spring constant by
dividing the load by the total elongation.

Solution:

16PR 4𝑚−1 0.615

τ= ( 4𝑚−4 + )
π d3 m

For spring 1:

16PR 4𝑚−1 0.615

200 = ( + )
π d3 4𝑚−4 m

16P(100) 4(8)−1 0.615

200 = ( + )
π(25 )3 4(8)−4 8

P = 5182.29N

For spring 2:

16P(75) 4(7.5)−1 0.615

200 = ( 4(7.5)−4 + )
π (20)3 7.5

P = 3498.28 N

Use P = 3498.28N
Solving for the total elongation,
δt = δ1 + δ2 (for series springs)

64PR3 n 64PR3 n
δt = ( Gd4
)1 +( Gd4
)2

64(3498.28)(100)3(12) 64(3498.28)(75)3 (10)

δt = +
83000 (25)4 83000 (20)4

δt = 154 mm
P 3498.28 𝑁
k= =
δ 154 𝑚𝑚

k = 22.72 N/mm