CHAPTER 1

History and Overview of

Computer Networks
History of Computer
Networks
 History of Computer
Networking
Focus on some key breakthroughs
• John Von Neumann
• Claude Shannon
• ARPANET
 Von Neumann (1903-
1957)
• Major contributions to quantum physics,
functional analysis, set theory,
economics, computer science,
topology, numerical analysis,
hydrodynamics (of explosions),
statistics ...
• Pioneer of modern digital computer
• published (1945) a paper entitled “First
Draft of a report to the EDVAC”
– presented all of the basic elements of a
stored-program computer
 Von Neumann Machine
• Other contributor:
• Konrad Zuse (1936) F

• First Binary Computer

• The first computer to use a binary, rather than decimal, method of operation.
• A memory containing both data and instructions. Also
to allow both data and instruction memory locations to
be read from, and written to, in any desired order
• A calculating unit capable of performing both
arithmetic and logical operations on the data
• A control unit, which could interpret an instruction
retrieved from the memory and select alternative
courses of action based on the results of previous
operations (courtesy: wikipedia.org
 Claude Shannon (1916-2001)
• Boolean Algebra:
His 1937 master's thesis,
A Symbolic Analysis of
Relay and Switching Circuits
• Boolean algebra and
binary arithmetic could be
used to simplify the arrangement
of the electromechanical relays
used in telephone switches
• Used arrangements of relays to solve Boolean algebra
problems
• Information Theory: In 1948 published A Mathematical
Theory of Communication article. Invented concepts
such as “Entropy” of an information source and
“Capacity” of a communication channel.
(courtesy: wikipedia.org)
 ARPANET
• In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in
research organizations were stand-alone
devices.
• Computers from different manufacturers
were unable to communicate with one
another.
• The Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) in the Department of
Defense (DOD) was interested in finding a
way to connect computers together so that
the researchers they funded could share
their findings, thereby reducing costs and
eliminating duplication of effort.
 ARPANET
• In 1967, at an Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented
its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of
connected computers.
• The idea was that each host computer (not
necessarily from the same manufacturer)
would be attached to a specialized
computer, called an interface message
processor (IMP).
• The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to
each other. Each IMP had to be able to
communicate with other IMPs as well as with
its own attached host.
 ARPANET
• By 1969, ARPANET was a reality.
• Four nodes, at the University of California at Los
Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at
Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research
Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were
connected via the IMPs to form a network.
• Software called the Network Control Protocol
(NCP) provided communication between the
hosts.
• In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of
whom were part of the core ARPANET group,
collaborated on what they called the
Internetting Project.
 So why do we use
networks?
• Applications: Sending data
between computers, sharing files.
• Resources: Network printers,
network cameras.
• Storage: Using a NAS (Network
attached storage) will make your
storage available on the network.
Many people use one at home
nowadays to share files, videos and
pictures between computers. 11
 So why do we use networks?
(continued)
• Backup: Using a central backup
server where all computers send
their data to for backup.
• VoIP: Voice over IP is becoming more
important and every day and
replacing analog telephony.

12
What is a computer network?

Definition:
• A network is the interconnection of
a set of devices capable of
communication.
13
 Network Criteria
• Performance : can be measured in many
ways, including transit time and response
time.
• The performance of a network depends on
a number of factors, including
The number of users,
The type of transmission medium,
The capabilities of the connected hardware, and
 The efficiency of the software.
• Performance is often evaluated by two
networking metrics: throughput and
delay.
 Network Criteria

• Reliability: is measured by the

frequency of failure, the time it takes a
link to recover from a failure, and the
network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
• Security: Network security issues
include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
 Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
A point-to-point connection
provides a dedicated link between
two devices.
A multipoint (also called multidrop)
connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a
single link
Types of connection
 Network Topologies
• A network topology is the physical and logical
arrangement of nodes and connections in a
network.
• In general we have two different types of
topologies:
 Physical topology
 Logical topology
• Physical topology: is what the network looks
like and how all the cables and devices are
connected to each other.
• Logical topology: is the path our data signals
take through the physical topology.
18
 Network Topologies(cont…)

• A network's topology affects its

capabilities. The choice of one
topology over another will have an
impact on the:
– Type of equipment that the network
needs
– Capabilities of the network
– Growth of the network
– Way the network is managed
 Network Topologies(cont…)
• There are multiple types of physical
topologies:
 Bus topology:
– based on coax-cables
– just one long cable and
every device was connected to it
– At the end of the cable you had to place
a terminator.
– If the cable breaks then your network is
down.

20
Network Topologies(cont…)
 Ring topology:
 Consists of a set repeaters joined
by point -to- point links in a closed loop.
 The links are unidirectional, that is,
data are transmitted in one direction only,
and all oriented in the same way.
 The data circulates around the ring in one direction
(clockwise or counter clockwise).

 Star topology:
 end devices (computers) are
connected to a central device
creating a star model.
 Common on local area networks
(LAN) with a switch in the middle.
 The physical connections we normally use is UTP (Unshielded twisted
pair) cable. 21
 Network Topologies(cont…)
• Mesh Topology
– Full-mesh
• every router is connected
to every other router.
• very resistant to failure
since a single link failure will not bring
our network down.
• it’s very expensive
• Because you need multiple links
between the sites and each router
needs extra interfaces

22
 Network Topologies(cont…)
• Partial-Mesh
 Another option is to
make sure the important
sites have connections
to all other sites like in the
following picture.
 This is a trade-off between fault
tolerance and cost (it’s always
about money right?).

23
Network Types Based Geographical Area

Local Area Network

 Privately owned
 Links the devices in a single office, building, or
campus
 Limited in size and distance
 Has speed of 100 or 1000 Mbps (today)
LAN
 Network types
Metropolitan Area Networks
Is designed to extend over an entire city
It may be a single network such as a
cable television network, or it may be a
means of connecting a number of LANs
in to a larger network so that resources
can be shared LAN-to-LAN as well as
device to device.
Can be wholly owned and operated by a
private company, or it may be a service
provided by a public company, such as a
local telephone company.
MAN
 Wide Area Network

• Provides long-distance transmission

of data, image, audio, and video
information over large geographic
areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world.
 INTERNET
• Internetworks: when two or more
networks are connected they
become an internetwork, or
internet.
 Network Types Based Architecture

• Two major types: peer-to-peer and

client/server (also called server-
based)
Peer-to-Peer Networking
• All computers are peers (equal)
• no centralized control over shared
resources
• no single computer has any higher
priority to access, or increased
responsibility to provide, shared
Peer-to-Peer
 Peer-to-peer (cont…)
• every user must also act as a network
administrator, controlling access to the
resources on their machines.
• Peer-to-Peer Networking Advantages
• The following list summarizes the
advantages of peer-to-peer networking:
■ A peer-to-peer network is easy to install
and configure.
■ Machines don’t depend on the presence
of a dedicated server.
■ Users control their own shared resources.
 Peer-to-peer (cont…)

■ Peer-to-peer networking is
inexpensive to purchase and
operate.
■ Peer-to-peer networks need no
additional equipment or software
beyond a suitable operating system.
■ No dedicated administrators are
needed to run the network.
■ A peer-to-peer network works best
for networks with 10 or fewer users.
 Peer-to-peer (cont…)
Peer-to-Peer Networking
Disadvantages
■ Network security applies to only a single
resource at a time.
Users might be forced to use as many
passwords as there are shared resources.
■ Each machine must be backed up to
protect all shared data.
■ Every time a user accesses a shared
resource, performance of the machine
where the resource resides is reduced.
 Peer-to-peer (cont…)
■ There is no centralized
organizational scheme to locate or
control access to data.
■ Access to a shared resource is
unavailable if the machine where the
resource resides is turned off or
crashes.
■ A peer-to-peer network doesn’t
usually work well with more than 10
users.
 Server-Based
•
Networks
A server is a machine with the sole
function of responding to client
requests.
• A server is seldom operated by
someone sitting in front of it (and
then usually only for installation,
configuration, or management tasks)
• A server’s main role on a network is
to be continuously available to
handle the many requests
Server based network
 Server based network(cont…)
• Server-based networks provide
centralized control over network
resources
Server-Based Networking
Advantages
• The following list summarizes the
advantages of server-based networking:
■ Centralized user accounts, security, and
access controls simplify network
administration.
■ More powerful equipment means more
efficient access to network resources.
 Server based network (cont…)
■ Server hardware design is generally
more robust, providing features such as
fault-tolerant hardware and redundant
systems.
■ A single password for network logon
delivers access to network-wide
resources as specified in access
controls.
■ Server-based networking makes the
most sense for networks with 10 or
more users or any networks where
resources are used heavily.
 Server based network (cont…)
Server-Based Networking
Disadvantages
• The following list summarizes the
disadvantages of server-based networking:
■ At the worst, server failure renders a
network unusable; at the least, it results in
loss of network resources.
■ Complex server software requires allocating
expert staff, which increases expenses.
■ Dedicated hardware and specialized
software add to the cost of server-based
networking.
 Components of a Network

• The components required to operate a

network can be divided into two major
categories.
1. Hardware
2. Software
• The hardware components of a
network consist of the following five
items
 Server  Cabling
 Workstation  Network Interface
 Network components (cont…)
The software necessary to operate a
network consists of four items
Network operating system
 Server software
The operating system of the
workstation
 Client software
 Network components (cont…)
Hardware
The Server
• The server functions as the central repository
resources/services the network provides.
• Usually the server is also responsible for
controlling which users on which computers in
the network are granted access to a service.
Workstations
• A place where the services of the server are
used
• Usually not as good as the server in one way
or another
 Network components (cont…)
Cabling
• This is what connects the file server
and workstations. Another phrase for
cabling is transmission media.
• There are various types of
transmission media, including coaxial
cable, twisted-pair cable (both
shielded and unshielded), and fiber-
optic.
 Network components (cont…)

• Network interface card (NIC)

• The NIC is located in every workstation
on the LAN as well as in the server.
• It is a board that plugs into one of the
expansion slots on the motherboard of
a workstation and the server, thereby
providing a connector on the back to
hook to some sort of transmission
media (including wireless media).
• Acts as a “transmitter” and “receiver” –
transceiver.
Network components (cont…)
• The Concentrator
• To accommodate multiple workstations, a
hub or central data collecting area is often
used, although certain network architectures
such as linear bus structures do not use hubs
or concentrators.
• On certain networks, a hub allows for
multiple connections or splitting of the
network cable.
• Two types
• Hubs: share bandwidth but are cheaper
• Switches: conserve bandwidth but are more
expensive
 Network components (cont…)
Software
The Network Operating System
• Software that resides on the server.
• Controls virtually all the activity on
the network.
• The NOS manages access to the
resource on the server and handles
security of the resources on the
server.
 Network components (cont…)
 The workstation operating system
• The operating system software for each
workstation is loaded at the workstation.
• This software is essential for the
workstation to operate, even if that
workstation is not part of a network
 The server software
• Usually loaded on the server
• Provides an interface through the service
given to clients
– Most popular ones are web server, mail server,
print server, file server, database server, etc.
Network components (cont…)
• The client software
• Used to access the service given by
the server software on the server
• Capable of interfacing with server
software
• E.g. web browsers, e-mail clients etc
 Networking Devices
• NIC
• Repeater
• Hub
• Bridge
• Switch
• Router
• Gateway
• Others?-Explore!
 Network devices (cont…)
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
• The Network Interface Card (NIC), also
known as a network adaptor, acts as
the interface between the computer
and the physical network connection.
• A NIC may have either an RJ45
connector or a BNC(Bayonet Neill-
Concelman) connector
 Transceivers
• is a networking device that converts
from one cabling technology to
another.
 Network devices (cont…)
 Repeater
• A repeater is a device that connects two
network segments and broadcasts data
between them.
• It amplifies the signal, thereby extending the
usable length of the bus.
 Hub
• A central point of a star topology
• Allows the multiple connection of devices
• In reality a Hub is a Repeater with multiple
ports
• Hubs can be active, passive or hybrid.
 Network devices (cont…)
Bridge, Switch and Router
Bridge
• A bridge is a device that acts as an
interface between two sets of
segments.
• connect networks that use similar
network technologies
Switch
• A switch is similar to a bridge, except
that it has multiple ports.
• A switch can also be seen as a more
intelligent hub
 Network devices (cont…)
Router
• A router is also used for connecting
networks together.
• Connect networks that use different
network technologies
Gateway
• Allow different networks to
communicate by offering a translation
service from one protocol stack to
another
 Protocols and standards
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications.
• A protocol defines what is communicated,
how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing.
 Syntax: structure or format of the data
 Semantics: the meaning of each section of
bits
 Timing : refers to two characteristics: when
data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent.
 Protocols and standards (cont..)
• Standards ensure open and competitive market
for equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing
national and international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and
processes.
 Standards are documented agreements containing technical
specifications or other precise criteria that stipulate how a
particular product or service should be designed or
performed.
 standards are essential for interoperability
 data communication standards fall into two categories
• Data communication standards fall into two
categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by
convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by
regulation").
Network (Reference) Models

• A reference model is a conceptual blueprint of how

communications should take place.
• It addresses all the processes required for effective
communication and divides these processes into
logical groupings called layers.
• When a communication system is designed in this
manner, it’s known as layered architecture.
Network (Reference) Models….

 Consider an example of sending a letter

58
 Network (Reference) Models….
 Hierarchy
 there are three different activities at the sender side
and another three at the receiver’s side
for one computer to send a message to another computer, the
first computer must perform the following general steps
break the data into small sections called packets
add addressing information to the packets identifying the
source and destination computers
deliver the data to the network interface card for
transmission over the network
the receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in
reverse order
Network (Reference) Models….
the tasks must be done in the order given in the hierarchy
Layers and Services
within a single machine, each layer uses the services
immediately below it and provides services for the layer
immediately above it
between machines, layer x on one machine communicates
with layer x on another machine
Network (Reference) Models….
 Why layering?
 reduces complexity (one big problem to
smaller ones)
 standardizes interfaces (between layers)
 facilitates modular engineering (different
teams work on different modules)
 assures interoperable technology
 accelerates evolution of networking
technology
 simplifies teaching and learning

61
 Network (Reference) Models….
• In the beginning the development of networks was
unruly. Each vendor had its own proprietary solution.
• The bad part was that one vendor’s solution was not
compatible with another vendor’s solution.
• This is where the idea for the OSI and TCP/IP models
were born, having a layered approach to networks our
hardware vendors would design hardware for the
network, and others could develop software for the
application layer.
• Using an open model which everyone agrees on means
we can build networks that are compatible with each
other.
 OSI Model Layers

“All People Seem To Need Data Processing”

63
 TCP/IP Model
• Besides the OSI-model there was
another organization that created a
similar model which never became
quite as popular.
• It’s called the TCP/IP stack
and it’s similar except some
of the layers are combined
and have different names.

64
 OSI Model Vs TCP/IP Model

• Here’s a comparison between the

two models:

65
 Data
Communications
 Introduction
• Sharing info in a network can be local
or remote
• Between individuals, local
communication usually occurs face to
face, while remote communication
takes place over distance.
• The term telecommunication, which
includes telephony, telegraphy, and
television, means communication at a
distance (tele is Greek for “far”).
 Introduction
• The word data refers to information
presented in whatever form is agreed upon
by the parties creating and using the data.
• Data communications are the exchange
of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable.
• The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery,
accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
 Intro…
• Delivery. The system must deliver
data to the correct destination.
• Accuracy. The system must deliver
the data accurately.
• Timeliness. The system must deliver
data in a timely manner. This kind of
delivery is called real-time
transmission.
• Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in
the packet arrival time.
 Communications Model

Figure 2.1 Simplified Communications Model

 Communications Model(Cont…)

 The key elements of the model are as follows:

• Source. This device generates the data to be
transmitted. E.g. PC
• Transmitter: a transmitter transforms and encodes
the information. E.g. Modem
• Transmission system: This can be a single
transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination.
• Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the
transmission system and converts it into a form
that can be handled by the destination device.
• Destination: Takes the incoming data from the
receiver.
Data Transmission
 Data Transmission
• Data transmission refers to the
movement of data in form of bits
between two or more digital devices.
• This transfer of data takes place via
some form of transmission media (for
example, coaxial cable, fiber optics
etc.)
 Transmission Terminology

• Guided media: the waves are guided

along a physical path
• Unguided media: also called wireless,
provide a means for transmitting
electromagnetic waves but do not guide
them
• Direct link: is used to refer to the
transmission path between two devices in
which signals propagate directly from
transmitter to receiver with no
intermediate devices, other than amplifiers
or repeaters used to increase signal
strength.
 Transmission Terminology …
• Point to point: provides a direct link
between two devices and those are the only
two devices sharing the medium.
• Multipoint: more than two devices share
the same medium.
• Mode of transmission
– Simplex transmission: signals are transmitted
in only one direction; one station is transmitter
and the other is receiver.
– Half-duplex: both stations may transmit, but
only one at a time.
– Full-duplex: both stations may transmit
simultaneously.
Transmission Terminology…
 Data
transmission(cont…)
• Types of Data Transmission
 Data transmission(cont…)
• Parallel transmission
 In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are
transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
 In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are
used. Thus each bit has its own line.
 All n bits of one group are transmitted with
each clock pulse from one device to another i.e.
multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
 Parallel transmission is used for short distance
communication.
 As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are
used to transmit 8 bit data from sender to
receiver.
 Parallel transmission(cont..)

Advantage of parallel transmission

• It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple
bits are transmitted simultaneously with a single
clock pulse.
Disadvantage of parallel transmission
• It is costly method of data transmission as it
requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same time.
 Data transmission(cont…)
Serial Transmission
• In serial transmission, the various bits of data
are transmitted serially one after the other.
• It requires only one communication line rather
than n lines to transmit data from sender to
receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on
single line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent
with each clock pulse.
• Serial transmission is used for long distance
communication.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)

Advantage of Serial transmission

• Use of single communication line reduces the
transmission line cost by the factor of n as compared to
parallel transmission.
Disadvantages of Serial transmission
• Use of conversion devices at source and destination end
may lead to increase in overall transmission cost.
• This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission
as bits are transmitted serially one after the other.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)

Types of Serial Transmission

• There are two types of serial transmission-
synchronous and asynchronous both
these transmissions use 'Bit
synchronization'
• Bit Synchronization is a function that is
required to determine when the beginning
and end of the data transmission occurs.
• Bit synchronization helps the receiving
computer to know when data begin and
end during a transmission. Therefore bit
synchronization provides timing control.
Serial Transmission(cont…)
Asynchronous Transmission
• it sends one byte of data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is
made possible using start bit and stop bit.

• Addition of start and stop increase the

number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth
is consumed in asynchronous transmission.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
• There is idle time between the
transmissions of different data bytes.
This idle time is also known as Gap.

Application of Asynchronous
Transmission
 keyboard type-terminals
best suited to Internet traffic
 Serial
Transmission(cont…)
Advantages of Asynchronous
transmission
• Cheaper
• Easy error control
• Support sources having different bit
rates
• The transmission can start as soon as
data byte to be transmitted becomes
available.
• Moreover, this mode of data
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
Disadvantages of asynchronous
transmission
• This method is less efficient and
slower than synchronous
transmission due to the overhead of
extra bits and insertion of gaps into
bit stream.
• Successful transmission inevitably
depends on the recognition of the
start bits. These bits can be missed
or corrupted.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not
use start and stop bits.
• In this method bit stream is
combined into longer frames that
may contain multiple bytes.
• There is no gap between the various
bytes in the data stream.
 Serial
Transmission(cont…)

• bit synchronization is established between

sender & receiver by 'timing' the
transmission of each bit.
• In order to receive the data error free, the
receiver and sender operates at the same
clock frequency.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
Application of Synchronous transmission
• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed
communication between computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission
• This method is faster as compared to
asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit
& stop bit) and also there is no gap between the
individual data bytes.
• Disadvantages of Synchronous
transmission
• Costly because It requires local buffer storage at
the two ends of line to assemble blocks
• sender and receiver have to operate at the same
clock frequency
Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission
 Comparison between
Asynchronous and Synchronous.
 Analog and Digital data transmission
Analog and Digital Data
• Data can be analog or digital.
• The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous;
E.g. Analog Watch

• Digital data refers to information that has

discrete states.
E.g. Digital watch

• Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human

voice, take on continuous values.
 Analog and Digital data transmission (cont…)

• When someone speaks, an analog

wave is created in the air.
• The human voice captured by a
microphone and converted to an
analog signal or sampled and
converted to a digital signal.
• Digital data can be converted to a
digital signal or modulated into an
analog signal for transmission across
a medium.
 Analog and Digital data
transmission (cont…)
Analog and Digital Signals
• Like the data they represent, signals can be
either analog or digital.
• An analog signal has infinitely many levels
of intensity over a period of time.
• As the wave moves from value A to value B,
it passes through and includes an infinite
number of values along its path.
• A digital signal, on the other hand, can
have only a limited number of defined values.
• Although each value can be any number, it is
often as simple as 1 and 0.
 Analog and Digital data
transmission (cont…)

• Comparison of analog and digital

signals
 Transmission Media
• can be broadly defined as anything that
can carry information from a source to a
destination.
 free space,
 metallic cable,
 or fiber-optic cable.
• transmission media can be divided into two
broad categories: guided and unguided.
• Guided media include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• Unguided medium is free space.
Transmission media
category
 GUIDED MEDIA

• are those that provide a conduit from

one device to another
• A signal traveling along any of these
media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium.
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use
metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the form of
electric current.
• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts
and transports signals in the form of light.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
• Twisted-Pair Cable
• consists of two conductors (normally
copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together

• Two wires are twisted together, one to

carry signals and the other used as
ground reference.
• The receiver uses the difference
between the two.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-
Pair Cable
• The most common twisted-pair cable
used in communications is referred to
as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
• IBM has also produced a version of
twisted-pair cable for its use, called
shielded twisted-pair (STP).
• STP cable has a metal foil or braided
mesh covering that encases each pair
of insulated conductors.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
• Although metal casing improves the
quality of cable by preventing the
penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is
bulkier and more expensive.
UTP Cable
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Connectors
• The most common UTP connector is
RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)
• The RJ45 is a keyed connector,
meaning the connector can be
inserted in only one way.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Common Applications
A local loop in telephone lines
Digital subscriber line (DSL)
Local Area networks (10Base-T and
100Base-T)
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Coaxial Cable
• carries signals of higher frequency
ranges than
those in twisted pair cable
• Instead of having two wires, coax has
a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper)
enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Coaxial Cable Standards
• Coaxial cables are
categorized by their Radio
Government (RG) ratings.

Connectors
• The most common type of
connector used today is the
Bayonet Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)

Applications
• Television distribution (cable TV)
• Long distance telephone
transmission(10,000 voice
channels per cable)
• Local Area Networks
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Fiber-Optic Cable
• An optical fiber is a thin(2-125
micrometer), flexible medium
capable of conducting an optical ray.
– Made of an ultra pure fused silica, glass
fiber or even plastic.
• It has a cylindrical shape and
consists of three concentric sections :
the core , the cladding , and the
jacket.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
• A glass or plastic core is surrounded
by a cladding of less dense glass or
plastic.
• The difference in density of the two
materials must be such that a beam of
light moving through the core is
reflected off the cladding instead of
being refracted into it.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Fiber Optics Propagation Modes

Propagation modes
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Multimode: refers to the variety of angles
that will reflect. Multiple propagation path
exists, signal elements spread out in time,
and hence limits the data rate.
Single Mode : when the fiber core radius is
reduced , fewer angles will reflect. By
reducing the radius of the core to the
order of wave length, only a single angle
or mode can pass (the axial ray).
Multimode graded index: by varying the
refractive index of the core , rays may be
focused more efficiently than multimode.
GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)

Modes
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Multimode step-index fiber: the density of
the core remains constant from the center to
the edges.
• A beam of light moves through this constant
density in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding.
• At the interface, there is an abrupt change
due to a lower density; this alters the angle
of the beam’s motion.
• The term step-index refers to the
suddenness of this change, which contributes
to the distortion of the signal as it passes
through the fiber.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)

• Connectors

square connector Straight Tip

Mechanical Transfer Registered

Jack
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Applications
As a backbone for networks
Some cable TV companies use a
combination of optical fiber and
coaxial cable
Local-area networks such as
100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
and 1000Base-X
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical
Fiber
Advantages
 High bandwidth
 Lass signal attenuation
 Immunity to EMI(Electromagnetic
interference)
 Resistance to corrosive materials
 Light weight
Disadvantage
 Installation and maintenance
 Unidirectional light propagation
 Cost
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

• Transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor.
• Signals are normally broadcast
through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them.

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless

communication
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

• Transmission and reception are achieved by

means of antennas.
– For transmission, an antenna radiates electro-
magnetic radiation in the air.
– For reception, the antenna pickups electro magnetic
waves from the surrounding medium.
– The antenna plays a key role.
• Basically two types of configuration
 Transmitting antenna puts out a focused
electromagnetic beam
– Transmitter and receiver must be carefully aligned.
– Allows point –to-point communication
 Transmitted signal spreads in all directions.
– Can be received by many antennas.
 Propagation Methods

Ground Propagation Line-of-sight propagation

 Below 2 MHz above 30 MHz
 Example: AM radio FM radio, TV, Cellular radio
Terrestrial microwave
Satellite communication
Sky propagation
 Form 2 to 30 MHz
 Citizen Band(CB)
 Wireless transmission
• techniques
We can divide wireless transmission into
three broad groups: radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared waves.
Radio Waves
• Although there is no clear-cut demarcation
– Waves ranginging in frequencies between 3KHz
and 1 GHz =radio waves
– Waves ranginging in frequencies between 1
GHz and 300 GHz =microwaves
• However, the behavior of the waves,
rather than the frequencies, is a better
criterion for classification.
Characteristics of Radio waves
Omni directional (When an antenna
transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions)
i.e. there is no need to align the
sending and receiving antennas to
align straight forward.
Radio waves, particularly those of low
and medium frequencies, can
penetrate walls.
• Based on the wavelength, strength, and the
purpose of transmission, we can have several
types of antennas.
• Omni directional Antenna

Applications
– Multicasting= one sender but many receivers.
– E.g. AM and FM radios, Television, Maritime radio, Cordless
phones and paging
Microwaves
• They have frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz
• are unidirectional (i.e. sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned).
Characteristics
 Its propagation is line of sight
 Repeaters are often needed for long distance
communication.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate
walls.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299
GHz.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires
permission from authorities.
Unidirectional Antenna
• Two types of antennas are used for
microwave communications: the
parabolic dish and the horn.
Applications
• are very useful when unicast(one-to-
one) communication is needed
between the sender and the receiver.
• are used in cellular phones satellite
networks and wireless LANs.
Satellite Microwave
• A satellite is basically a microwave relay
station.
– Used to link one or more earth stations.
• Satellite communication configuration
– Point-to-point configuration
– Broadcast configuration
• The satellite must have a period of rotation
equal to the earth's period of rotation to
remain stationary with respect to its
position over the earth.
• This match occurs at a height of 35,784
km.
 Frequency Bands
Transponders
• A single orbiting satellite operate on
a number of frequency bands called
transponders.
• Satellite receivers transmission on
one frequency band (uplink) ,
amplifies or repeats the signal and
transmits
Band it on another
Frequency Downlink GHz frequency
Uplink GHz

(downlink).
C 4/6 GHz 3.7-4.2 5.925-6.425

Ku 12/14 GHz 11.7-12.2 14.0-14.5

Ka 18/28 GHz 17.7-21.0 27.5-31.0

• Two satellites using the same frequency band, if close
enough together, will interfere with each other.
• To avoid this problem, current standards require a 4 0
spacing (angular displacement as measured from the
earth) in the 4/6 GHz band and a 30 spacing at 12/14
GHz.
• Thus, the number of possible satellites is quite limited.
Applications
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks etc
Drawbacks
• Long propagation delay
• Inherently broadcasting facility
• Requires error and flow control
 Infrared

• Infrared waves with frequencies from

300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from
1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for
short-range communication.
• Infrared waves, having high
frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
• advantageous= prevents
interference between one system and
another; a short-range communication
system in one room cannot be affected
by another system in the next room.
• However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication.
• we cannot use infrared waves outside a building
because the sun’s rays contain infrared waves
that can interfere with the communication.
Applications
 For data transmission
 for communication between devices such as
keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. (IrDA standard)
 The standard originally defined a data rate of 75
kbps for a distance up to 8 m.
 The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.
 TRANSMISSION
•
IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission
media, which are not perfect.
• The imperfection causes signal
impairment.
• This means that the signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the
same as the signal at the end of the
medium.
• What is sent is not what is received
• Three causes of impairment are

• Attenuation means a loss of energy.

• When a signal, simple or composite,
travels through a medium, it loses
some of its energy in overcoming the
resistance of the medium.
Decibel
• To show that a signal has lost or gained
strength, engineers use the unit of the
decibel.
• The decibel (dB) measures the relative
strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points.
 Distortion

• Distortion means that the signal

changes its form or shape.
• Distortion can occur in a composite
signal made of different frequencies.
• Each signal component has its own
propagation speed through a medium
and, therefore, its own delay in
arriving at the final destination.
Distortion …
 Noise

• Noise is another cause of

impairment.
• Several types of noise, such as
thermal noise, induced noise,
crosstalk, and impulse noise, may
corrupt the signal.
• Thermal noises due to thermal
agitation of electrons.
• It is present in all electronic devices
and transmission media and is a
function of temperature.
• Thermal noise cannot be eliminated
and therefore places an upper
bound on communications system
performance.
• Because of the weakness of the
signal received by satellite earth
stations, thermal noise is
particularly significant for satellite
• Crosstalk has been experienced by anyone
who, while using the telephone, has been
able to hear another conversation; it is an
unwanted coupling between signal paths.
• It can occur by electrical coupling
between nearby twisted pairs or, rarely,
coax cable lines carrying multiple
signals.
• Crosstalk can also occur when microwave
antennas pick up unwanted signals
• Intermodulation: When multiple frequencies
share a medium, their interference can cause
noise in the medium. Intermodulation noise
occurs if two different frequencies are
sharing a medium
 Impulse
• This noise is introduced because of
irregular disturbances such as
lightening, electricity, short-circuit, or
faulty components. Digital data is mostly
affected by this sort of noise.
Switching
• Switching is a component of a
network’s logical topology that
determines how connections are
created between nodes.
• Three switching methods are used
on modern networks:
• circuit switching,
• packet switching, and
• multiprotocol label switching.
Circuit Switching
• In circuit switching, a connection is
established between two network nodes
before they begin transmitting data.
• Bandwidth is dedicated to this
connection and remains available until
the users terminate communication
between the two nodes.
• While the nodes remain connected, all
data follow the same path initially
selected by the switch.
• E.g Traditional telephone calls
Packet Switching
• Packet switching breaks data into
packets before they are
transported. Packets can travel any
path on the network to their
destination.
MPLS

• MPLS is an Internet Engineering Task

Force (IETF) standard architecture With
MPLS, short fixed-length labels are
assigned to each packet at the edge of
the network rather than examining the IP
packet header information, MPLS nodes
use this label to determine how to
process the data.
• This process results in a faster, more
scalable, and more flexible WAN solution.
Labels Are Used to Assign a Path for a
Packet Flow Through an MPLS Network

Packet A is assigned label 17 and is sent to Router X; Packet B is assigned

label 18 and is sent to Router