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![Example 6
Step 1: Input N1, N2, N3
Step 2: if (N1>N2) then
if (N1>N3) then
MAX N1 [N1>N2, N1>N3]
else
MAX N3 [N3>N1>N2]
endif
else
if (N2>N3) then
MAX N2 [N2>N1, N2>N3]
else
MAX N3 [N3>N2>N1]
endif
endif
Step 3: Print “The largest number is”, MAX](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/programmingfundamentalslecture4-121009101830-phpapp02/85/Programming-fundamentals-lecture-4-26-320.jpg)
![Example 6
Step 1: Input N1, N2, N3
Step 2: if (N1>N2) then
if (N1>N3) then
MAX N1 [N1>N2, N1>N3]
else
MAX N3 [N3>N1>N2]
endif
else
if (N2>N3) then
MAX N2 [N2>N1, N2>N3]
else
MAX N3 [N3>N2>N1]
endif
endif
Step 3: Print “The largest number is”, MAX](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/programmingfundamentalslecture4-121009101830-phpapp02/75/Programming-fundamentals-lecture-4-26-2048.jpg)
Uploaded byRaja Hamid
Programming fundamentals lecture 4
Here is an algorithm to determine which child stole the cookie: 1. Interview each child individually 2. Ask each child if they took a cookie 3. If the child says no, go to the next child 4. If the child says yes, that child is the cookie thief 5. If all children say no, no one has confessed - the cookie thief remains unknown This uses a sequence structure to interview each child one by one, and a selection structure (if/then) to determine if the child confesses or moving on to the next child.
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Overview of algorithms and flowcharts in programming: Problem solving phase and implementation phase.
Steps for algorithm development: start with a general algorithm, refine it using pseudocode.
Introduction to flowcharts: shows logic and interconnections, includes symbols for processes.
Examples of algorithms and flowcharts for calculating grades and conversions.
Algorithm and flowchart for calculating roots of quadratic equations using pseudocode.
Logical expressions and the use of IF-THEN-ELSE structures for decision making in algorithms.
Relational operators defined and usage in determining maximum values.
Usage of nested IF structures to determine the largest of three numbers, with flowchart examples.
Algorithm for calculating employee bonus based on overtime hours.
Introduction to pseudocode, basic computer operations for programming, control structures.
Importance of meaningful variable names for identification in programming.
Three basic control structures in programming: sequence, selection, and repetition.
Problem-solving approach illustrating a generic algorithm for the cookie jar scenario.
Translating the cookie problem into formal pseudocode for clarity and application.
Programming fundamentals lecture 4
- 1.
- 2. ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHARTS •A typical programming task can be divided into two phases: • Problem solving phase – produce an ordered sequence of steps that describe solution of problem – this sequence of steps is called an algorithm • Implementation phase – implement the program in some programming language
- 3. Steps in ProblemSolving • First produce a general algorithm (one can use pseudocode) • Refine the algorithm successively to get step by step detailed algorithm that is very close to a computer language. • Pseudocode is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop algorithms. Pseudocode is very similar to everyday English.
- 4. Pseudocode & Algorithm •Example 1: Write an algorithm to determine a student’s final grade and indicate whether it is passing or failing. The final grade is calculated as the average of four marks.
- 5. Pseudocode & Algorithm Pseudocode: •Input a set of 4 marks • Calculate their average by summing and dividing by 4 • if average is below 50 Print “FAIL” else Print “PASS”
- 6. Pseudocode & Algorithm •Detailed Algorithm • Step 1: Input M1,M2,M3,M4 Step 2: GRADE (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4 Step 3: if (GRADE < 50) then Print “FAIL” else Print “PASS” endif
- 7. The Flowchart A Flowchart – shows logic of an algorithm – emphasizes individual steps and their interconnections – e.g. control flow from one action to the next
- 8. Flowchart Symbols Basic Name Symbol Use in Flowchart Oval Denotes the beginning or end of the program Parallelogram Denotes an input operation Rectangle Denotes a process to be carried out e.g. addition, subtraction, division etc. Diamond Denotes a decision (or branch) to be made. The program should continue along one of two routes. (e.g. IF/THEN/ELSE) Hybrid Denotes an output operation Flow line Denotes the direction of logic flow in the program
- 9. Example START Step 1: Input M1,M2,M3,M4 Step 2: GRADE (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4 Input M1,M2,M3,M4 Step 3: if (GRADE <50) then Print “FAIL” else GRADE (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4 Print “PASS” endif N IS Y GRADE<50 PRINT PRINT “PASS” “FAIL” STOP
- 10. Example 2 • Writean algorithm and draw a flowchart to convert the length in feet to centimeter. Pseudocode: • Input the length in feet (Lft) • Calculate the length in cm (Lcm) by multiplying LFT with 30 • Print length in cm (LCM)
- 11. Example 2 Algorithm Flowchart • Step 1: Input Lft START • Step 2: Lcm Lft x 30 Input Lft • Step 3: Print Lcm Lcm Lft x 30 Print Lcm STOP
- 12. Example 3 Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart that will read the two sides of a rectangle and calculate its area. Pseudocode • Input the width (W) and Length (L) of a rectangle • Calculate the area (A) by multiplying L with W • Print A
- 13. Example 3 Algorithm START • Step 1: Input W,L Input W, L • Step 2: A L x W • Step 3: Print A A LxW Print A STOP
- 14. Example 4 • Writean algorithm and draw a flowchart that will calculate the roots of a quadratic equation ax 2 bx c 0 • X=(-b + sqrt (b2 -4ac))/2a • X=(-b - sqrt (b2 -4ac))/2a
- 15. Example 4 Pseudocode: • Inputthe coefficients (a, b, c) of the quadratic equation • Calculate d • Calculate x1 • Calculate x2 • Print x1 and x2
- 16. Example 4 START • Algorithm: Input • Step 1: Input a, b, c a, b, c • Step 2: d sqrt ( b b 4 a ) c • Step 3: x1 (–b + d) / (2 x a) d sqrt(b x b – 4 x a x c) • Step 4: x2 (–b – d) / (2 x a) x1 (–b + d) / (2 x a) • Step 5: Print x1, x2 X2 (–b – d) / (2 x a) Print x1 ,x2 STOP
- 17. DECISION STRUCTURES • Theexpression A>B is a logical expression • it describes a condition we want to test • if A>B is true (if A is greater than B) we take the action on left • print the value of A • if A>B is false (if A is not greater than B) we take the action on right • print the value of B
- 18. DECISION STRUCTURES Y N is A>B Print A Print B
- 19. IF–THEN–ELSE STRUCTURE • Thestructure is as follows If condition then true alternative else false alternative endif
- 20. IF–THEN–ELSE STRUCTURE • Thealgorithm for the flowchart is as follows: If A>B then print A else Y is N print B A>B endif Print A Print B
- 21. Relational Operators Relational Operators Operator Description > Greater than < Less than = Equal to Greater than or equal to Less than or equal to Not equal to
- 22. Example 5 • Writean algorithm that reads two values, determines the largest value and prints the largest value with an identifying message. ALGORITHM Step 1: Input VALUE1, VALUE2 Step 2: if (VALUE1 > VALUE2) then MAX VALUE1 else MAX VALUE2 endif Step 3: Print “The largest value is”, MAX
- 23. Example 5 START Input VALUE1,VALUE2 Y is N VALUE1>VALUE2 MAX VALUE1 MAX VALUE2 Print “The largest value is”, MAX STOP
- 24. NESTED IFS • Oneof the alternatives within an IF–THEN– ELSE statement – may involve further IF–THEN–ELSE statement
- 25. Example 6 • Writean algorithm that reads three numbers and prints the value of the largest number.
- 26. Example 6 Step 1:Input N1, N2, N3 Step 2: if (N1>N2) then if (N1>N3) then MAX N1 [N1>N2, N1>N3] else MAX N3 [N3>N1>N2] endif else if (N2>N3) then MAX N2 [N2>N1, N2>N3] else MAX N3 [N3>N2>N1] endif endif Step 3: Print “The largest number is”, MAX
- 27. Example 6 • Flowchart:Draw the flowchart of the above Algorithm.
- 28. Example 7 • Writeand algorithm and draw a flowchart to a) read an employee name (NAME), overtime hours worked (OVERTIME), hours absent (ABSENT) and b) determine the bonus payment (PAYMENT).
- 29. Example 7 Bonus Schedule OVERTIME – (2/3)*ABSENT Bonus Paid >40 hours $50 >30 but 40 hours $40 >20 but 30 hours $30 >10 but 20 hours $20 10 hours $10
- 30. Step 1: InputNAME,OVERTIME,ABSENT Step 2: if (OVERTIME–(2/3)*ABSENT > 40) then PAYMENT 50 else if (OVERTIME–(2/3)*ABSENT > 30) then PAYMENT 40 else if (OVERTIME–(2/3)*ABSENT > 20) then PAYMENT 30 else if (OVERTIME–(2/3)*ABSENT > 10) then PAYMENT 20 else PAYMENT 10 endif Step 3: Print “Bonus for”, NAME “is $”, PAYMENT
- 31. Example 7 • Flowchart:Draw the flowchart of the above algorithm?
- 32. Objectives • In thischapter you will be able to: • Introduce common words, keywords, and meaningful names when writing pseudocode • Define the three basic control structures as set out in the Structure Theorem • Illustrate the three basic control structures using pseudocode Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 32 Chapter 2
- 33. How to WritePseudocode • When designing a solution algorithm, you need to keep in mind that a computer will eventually perform the set of instructions written • If you use words and phrases in the pseudocode which are in line with basic computer operations, the translation from pseudocode algorithm to a specific programming language becomes quite simple Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 33 Chapter 2
- 34. Six Basic ComputerOperations 1 A computer can receive information – When a computer is required to receive information or input from a particular source, whether it is a terminal, a disk or any other device, the verbs Read and Get are used in pseudocode Example pseudocode Read student name Get system data Read => Input from a record Read number1, number2 Get tax_code Get => Input from keyboard Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 34 Chapter 2
- 35. Six Basic ComputerOperations 1 A computer can receive information – Usually an output Prompt instruction is required before an input Get instruction Example pseudocode Prompt for student_mark Get student_mark Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 35 Chapter 2
- 36. Six Basic ComputerOperations 2 A computer can put out information – When a computer is required to supply information or output to a device, the verbs Print, Write, Put, Output, or Display are used in pseudocode Example pseudocode Print ‘Program Completed’ – Print => send output to printer Write customer record to master Output total tax – Write => send out to file Display ‘End of data’ – Put, Output, Display => send to screen Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 36 Chapter 2
- 37. Six Basic ComputerOperations 3 A computer can perform arithmetic – Most programs require the computer to perform some sort of mathematical calculation, or formula, and for these, a programmer may use either actual mathematical symbols or the words for those symbols – To be consistent with high-level programming languages, the following symbols can be written in pseudocode: + for Add - for Subtract * for Multiply / for Divide ( ) for Parentheses – When writing mathematical calculations for the computer, standard mathematical ‘order of operations’ applies to pseudocode and most computer languages Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 37 Chapter 2
- 38. Six Basic ComputerOperations 4 A computer can assign a value to a variable or memory location – There are three cases where you may write pseudocode to assign a value to a variable or memory location: 1. To give data an initial value in pseudocode, the verbs Initialize or Set are used 2. To assign a value as a result of some processing the symbols ‘=‘ or ‘ ’ are written 3. To keep a variable for later use, the verbs Save or Store are used Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 38 Chapter 2
- 39. Six Basic ComputerOperations 4 A computer can assign a value to a variable or memory location Example pseudocode Initialize total_price to zero Set student_count to zero Total_price = cost_price + sales_tax Total_price cost_price + sales_tax Store customer_num in last_customer_num Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 39 Chapter 2
- 40. Six Basic ComputerOperations 5 A computer can compare two variables and select one or two alternate actions – An important computer operation available to the programmer is the ability to compare two variables and then, as a result of the comparison, select one of two alternate actions – To represent this operation in pseudocode, special keywords are used: IF, THEN, and ELSE Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 40 Chapter 2
- 41. Six Basic ComputerOperations 6 A computer can repeat a group of actions – When there is a sequence of processing steps that need to be repeated, two special keywords, DOWHILE and ENDDO, are used in pseudocode – The condition for the repetition of a group of actions is established in the DOWHILE clause, and the actions to be repeated are listed beneath it Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 41 Chapter 2
- 42. Meaningful Names • Allnames should be meaningful • A name given to a variable is simply a method of identifying a particular storage location in the computer • The uniqueness of a name will differentiate it from other locations • Often a name describes the type of data stored in a particular variable • Most programming languages do not tolerate a space in a variable name, as a space would signal the end of the variable name and thus imply that there were two variables Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 42 Chapter 2
- 43. The Structure Theorem •The Structure Theorem states that it is possible to write any computer program by using only three basic control structures that are easily represented in pseudocode: – Sequence – Selection – Repetition Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 43 Chapter 2
- 44. The Three BasicControl Structures 1 Sequence – The sequence control structure is the straightforward execution of one processing step after another – In pseudocode, we represent this construct as a sequence of pseudocode statements 2 Selection – The selection control structure is the presentation of a condition and the choice between two actions; the choice depends on whether the condition is true or false – In pseudocode, selection is represented by the keywords IF, THEN, ELSE, and ENDIF Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 44 Chapter 2
- 45. The Three BasicControl Structures 3 Repetition – The repetition control structure can be defined as the presentation of a set of instructions to be performed repeatedly, as long as a condition is true – The basic idea of repetitive code is that a block of statements is executed again and again, until a terminating condition occurs – This construct represents the sixth basic computer operation, namely to repeat a group of actions Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 45 Chapter 2
- 46. Summary • In thischapter, six basic computer operations were listed, along with pseudocode words and keywords to represent them • These operations were: to receive information, put out information, perform arithmetic, assign a value to a variable, decide between two alternate actions, and repeat a group of actions • The Structure Theorem was introduced; it states that it is possible to write any computer program by using only three basic control structures: sequence, selection, and repetition Simple Program Design, Fourth Edition 46 Chapter 2
- 47. Someone Stole aCookie from the Cookie Jar Problem: Momma had just filled the cookie jar when the 3 children went to bed. That night one child woke up, ate half of the cookies and went back to bed. Later, the second child woke up, ate half of the remaining cookies, and went back to bed. Still later, the third child woke up, ate half of the remaining cookies, leaving 3 cookies in the jar. How many cookies were in the jar to begin with?
- 48. Someone Stole aCookie from the Cookie Jar (cont’d) • Information available: – Three children – Each one ate half of the cookies – Three cookies remaining • Information needed: – Original number of cookies • Calculations: – For each child, multiply the number of remaining cookies by two.
- 49. Specific Solution tothe Problem • First, we solve the specific problem to help us identify the steps. – 3 cookies left X 2 = 6 cookies left after 2nd child – 6 X 2 = 12 cookies left after 1st child – 12 X 2 = 24 = original number of cookies
- 50. A Generic Algorithm •What is a generic algorithm for this problem? An algorithm that will work with any number of remaining cookies AND that will work with any number of children.
- 51. Generic Algorithm forCookie Problem • Get number of children. • Get number of cookies remaining. • While there are still children that have not raided the cookie jar, multiply the number of cookies by 2 and reduce the number of children by 1. • Display the original number of cookies.
- 52. Test The GenericAlgorithm • Try the algorithm on paper with: – Four children and six cookies remaining. – Two children with two cookies remaining. • If you did not get the correct answer, modify the algorithm so that you get the correct answer.
- 53. Pseudocode • When webroke down the previous problem into steps, we expressed each step as an English phrase. • We can think of this as writing pseudocode for the problem. • Typically, pseudocode is a combination of English phrases and formulas.
- 54. Pseudocode (con’t) • Pseudocodeis used in – designing algorithms – communicating an algorithm to the customer – converting an algorithm to code (used by the programmer) – debugging logic (semantic) errors in a solution before coding (hand tracing) • Let’s write the Cookie Problem algorithm using a more formal pseudocode and being more precise.
- 55. Improved Pseudocode Display “Enterthe number of children: “ Read <number of children> Display “Enter the number of cookies remaining: “ Read <cookies remaining> <original cookies> = <cookies remaining> While (<number of children> > 0) <original cookies> = <original cookies> X 2 <number of children> = <number of children> - 1 End_While Display “Original number of cookies = “, <original cookies>