Wireless Communications
Introduction
Primary Textbooks:
Theodore S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications,
Prentice Hall, 2nd Edition, 2002,
Andrea Goldsmith, Wireless Communications, Cambridge
University Press, 2005
Recommended Reading: John Proakis, Digital
Communications 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, ISBN 0072321113,
http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/electrical/proakis/
Wireless Communications ,
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Wireless Communications - Introduction
Wireless Communication History:
The first version of a mobile radio telephone being used in 1924.
source: www.bell-labs.com/technology/wireless/earlyservice.html
Wireless Communications ,
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Wireless Communications - Introduction
Some historical notes:
1946, the first public mobile telephone service in the USA. Single high-powered
transmitter on large tower (50 km coverage). Bandwidth 120 kHz for 3 kHz user
bandwidth.
Invention of the cellular concept: 1979, Verne H. MacDonald The Cellular Concept,
Bell System Technical Journal 58, No. 1 (January, 1979), pp 15-42
First cellular system: 1979, Nippon Telephone and Telegraph company (NTT) in
Japan (600 FM duplex channels, 25 kHz channel bandwidth, 800 MHz frequency
range)
In Europe: 1981, The Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT 450), (200 FM duplex
channels, 25 kHz channel bandwidth, 450 MHz frequency range)
In USA: 1983, The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), (666 FM duplex
channels, 30 kHz channel bandwidth, 800 MHz frequency range)
Read more in : T. K. Sarkar, R. J. Mailloux, A. A. Oliner, M. Salazar-Palma, and D. L.Sengupta, History of Wireless.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
Wireless Communications ,
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Wireless Communications - Introduction
Paradigm shifts (
1980
10 Years
1990 10 Years
1st Generation
NMT, AMPS, etc.
analogue,
voice
):
2000+
2nd Generation
GSM, D-AMPS,
IS-95
digital,
voice
3rd Generation
4th Generation
UMTS,
cdma200,
TD-SCDMA
3GPP Advanced (EU)
WiMAX (USA)
WiBro (Korea)
digital,
data services
digital,
data services
multimedia
We are only at the beginning!
Rapid development poses great challenges to research
Wireless Communications ,
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Mobile Communication at a Glance
Migration to 3G:
3G
2.75G
Intermediate
Multimedia
2.5G
Multimedia
Packet Data
2G
Digital Voice
1G
Analog Voice
GPRS
GSM
EDGE
W-CDMA
(UMTS)
384 Kbps
Up to 2 Mbps
115 Kbps
NMT
9.6 Kbps
GSM/
GPRS
TD-SCDMA
(Overlay)
115 Kbps
2 Mbps?
TDMA
TACS
9.6 Kbps
iDEN
9.6 Kbps
iDEN
PDC
(Overlay)
9.6 Kbps
AMPS
CDMA 1xRTT
CDMA
14.4 Kbps
/ 64 Kbps
PHS
1984 - 1996+
Wireless Communications ,
1992 - 2000+
cdma2000
1X-EV-DV
PHS
144 Kbps
(IP-Based)
64 Kbps
2003+
2001+
Over 2.4 Mbps
2003 - 2004+
Source: U.S. Bancorp Piper Jaffray
Page 6
the 4 larges mobile markets
350
Europe
Subscribers (Mio)
300
250
200
China
150
USA
100
Japan
50
0
84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03
Wireless Communications ,
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Wireless Communications - Introduction
Wireless services:
Past: primarily voice (single service)
Future: multimedia (incl. video, TV, gaming) and wireless computing,
sensor networks (plurality of services)
New powerful terminals: Moores law (1965)
Processing speed and storage capacity double every 18 month (at same
price)
Bottleneck: battery technology
Cognitive radio
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Introduction Definitions / Nomenclature
mobile station (MS)
user
portable
handset
subscriber
mobile unit
access point
base station (BS)
fixed unit
uplink
reverse link
MS BS
downlink
forward link
BS MS
handover
handoff
Wireless Communications ,
Process of transferring a mobile from one
channel/BS to anther
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Introduction Definitions / Nomenclature
Roaming
The ability to use the same service in
different networks, usually in different
countries, with the same terminal
time slot (TS)
radio resource sub-unit in time domain
sub-carrier
radio resource sub-unit (frequency domain)
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Standardisation Bodies
IMT 2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications)
ITU-R
Radio frequency
spectrum and
radio system
aspects
Wireless Communications ,
ITU-D
Studies, activities
and assistance
related to
implementation of
IMT-2000 in
developing
countries
Page 11
ITU-T
Network aspects
of IMT-2000 and
beyond: Wireless
Internet,
convergence of
mobile and fixed
network mobility
management
Data rate [Mbps]
Mobile Communication at a Glance
Service Provider / Content
Applications / Software
0.05
2nd
Wireless Communications ,
3rd Generation
Cellular
Page 12
Wireless
nth Generation
4th Generation
WiMAX (802.16)
Dig. TV (DVB-H)
WLAN
4th Generation
Bluetooth
Cordless - DECT
Wireless and Cellular Air Interfaces
TD-SCDMA (China)
CDMA 2000 (USA)
UMTS (UTRA-TDD)
0.5
GSM (worldwide)
PDC (Japan)
50
D-AMPS, IS-95 (USA)
500
UMTS (UTRA-FDD)
IMT-2000
5000
Example: GSM Overview
GSM (200 kHz carrier bandwidth)
(see: 3GPP TS 45.001 V7.1.0 (2005-06) )
High Speed Circuit
Switched Data
(HSCSD)
General Packet
Radio Service
(GPRS)
4xTX 57.6kbps
(=4x14.4kbsp)
8xTX 171.2kbps
(=8x21.4kbps)
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Enhanced data rates
for GSM evolution
(EDGE)
8xTX, 8PSK, no error
protection
547.2kbps
(practical: 384 kbps)
Example: CDMA200 Overview
CDMA2000 (1.25 MHz carrier bandwidth)
1xRTT
(single carrier
radio
transmission
technology)
(307 kbps DL,
152 kbps UL)
Wireless Communications ,
1xEV
(evolutionary
advancement)
1xEV - DO
- DV
(data only, or data
incl. HDR (high data and voice)
rate technology
(up to 2.4 Mbps)
highly depending on
mobile speed,
propagation
conditions,
interference
Page 14
3xRTT
(Multicarrier
transmission)
Example: ISM band
Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) bands unlicensed
Currently:
5150 5350 MHz
5725 5825 MHz
In the late 1980s the following frequencies were already specified as ISM bands:
902 928 MHz
2400 2483.5 MHz (Wireless LAN and Bluetooth)
WLAN, 802.11, standardised in 1997
2 Mbps user data rate
In 1999, 802.11(b) approved (Wi-Fi)
11 Mbps @ 5 GHz
In 2001, 802.11(a) approved
54 Mbps
802.11(g) = 802.11(b) @ 2.4 GHz + 802.11(a) @ 5 GHz (roaming)
In 2003, 802.11(e) approved
QoS features added
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Example: Bluetooth Overview
Bluetooth is a universal radio Interface working in the license free ISM band in the range 24002483.5 MHz.
The frequency range is divided in 79 RF frequencies separated by 1 MHz.
f=2402 GHz + k MHz, k=0, , 78
The channels are hopping between the 79 frequencies at 1600 hops/s (TS: 625s)
The frequency selection follows the Kernel algorithm defined in the specifications.
The basic Bluetooth network is called a
Piconet. It is formed by a Master and up
to 7 slaves.
slave 1
slave 2
slave 3
Each piconet is defined by a
different hopping pattern to which
users synchronize to.
Wireless Communications ,
master
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Overview of basic system techniques - Two way communication
Wireless Communications ,
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Overview of basic system techniques - Duplexing
Wireless Communications ,
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Overview of basic system techniques - Multiple access
Wireless Communications ,
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The Assignment of Radio Resources in Practice: Europe
GSM
GSM
915
880
925
960
f / MHz
UMTS
UMTS
UMTS
UMTS
UTRA-TDD
UTRA-FDD
UTRA-TDD
UTRA-FDD
1900
1920
Challenge:
Goals:
1980 2010 2025 2110
2170 f / MHz
Scarce, limited, expensive radio resources
1) Full coverage with limited resources
2) Many subscribers (high revenue)
3) High Quality of Service
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The Cellular Concept
Location Area
VLR
(visitor
location
register)
VLR
(visitor
location
register)
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HLR
(home
location
register)
Overview of key system techniques
Network
layer
&
Data-link
layer
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High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS)
European HeliNet Project
Heights 17 20 km
Advantages:
High speed communication in 20 50
GHz frequency band
Low multi-path and line-of-sight
conditions
Large coverage
Low Doppler
Disadvantages:
Source: J. Thornton, et al., Broadband
communications from a high altitude platform, IEE
Electronics & Communications Engineering Journal,
June 2001
Wireless Communications ,
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Antennas with high gain required due to
high attenuation
Scattering causes interference
Example: GSM Overview
1 hyperframe = 2 048 superframes = 2 715 648 TDMA frames (3 h 28 mn 53 s 760 ms)
0
2042
2043
2044
48
49
50
2045
2046
1 superframe = 1 326 TDMA frames (6,12 s)
(= 51 (26-frame) multiframes or 26 (51-frame) multiframes)
0
1
0
47
3
1
1 (26-frame) multiframe = 26 TDMA frames (120 ms)
0 1
25
24
1 (51-frame) multiframe = 51 TDMA frames (3060/13 ms)
22 23 24 25
0 1
46 47 48 49 50
1 TDMA frame = 8 time slots (120/26 or 4,615 ms)
0
NOTE: GMSK modulation: one symbol is one bit
8PSK modulation: one symbol is three bits
1 time slot = 156,25 symbol durations (15/26 or 0,577 ms)
(1 symbol duration = 48/13 or 3,69 s)
(TB: Tail bits - GP: Guard period)
Normal burst (NB)
The number shown are in symbols
TB
3
Frequency correction burst (FB)
TB
3
Synchronization burst (SB)
Access burst (AB)
TB
3
TB
8
Encrypted bits
58
Training sequence
26
Fixed bits
142
Synchronization sequence
41
Page 24
Encrypted bits
36
TB GP
3 8,25
TB GP
3 8.25
Synchronization sequence
64
Encrypted bits
39
3GPP TS 45.001 V7.1.0 (2005-06) )
Wireless Communications ,
Encrypted bits
58
TB
3
Encrypted bits
39
GP
68,25
TB GP
3 8,25
2047
The Cellular Concept
Wireless Communications ,
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The Cellular Concept
Wireless Communications ,
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The Cellular Concept
Power
BS1
Concept:
BS2
Location
Frequency Re-Use
more users can be served
Drawback: Generation of interference
reduction of users which can be served!
Wireless Communications ,
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The Cellular Concept
S
K
Number of duplex channels in the cellular system
Number of channels per cell
N
M
Number of cells (4, 7 or 12)
Number of times a cluster is repeatedly used
Available Channels are grouped in blocks and assigned to cells
S
K=
N
The system capacity (total number of channels) in the system is:
C=MS=M NK
If the cluster size, N, is reduced while the cell size is constant, more
clusters, M, are required and thus the greater the capacity. But, the smaller,
N, the smaller the frequency re-use distance and the higher the
interference.
Wireless Communications ,
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The Cellular Concept
Cell clustering
Wireless Communications ,
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The Cellular Concept
The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given by:
1
N
1
Each cell within a cluster is only assigned N of the total
available channels in the system.
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j=1
i=3
j=1
i=1
3-cell cluster
Wireless Communications ,
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The Cellular Concept
Co-Channel Interference
Interference between
two cells using the same
frequency due to
frequency reuse
f1
f1
Interference
(TDD & FDD)
Interference
(TDD only)
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The Cellular Concept
The number of cells per cluster, N, can
N = i2 + j 2 + i j
only have values which satisfy:
HW2: Prove that for a hexagonal geometry, the co-channel reuse
ratio is given by Q = 3 N . (Hint: use the cosine law and the
hexagonal cell geometry).
D=rQ
i
Wireless Communications ,
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i, j
The Cellular Concept
Adjacent-Channel Interference
f1
Page 34
tor
era
Op
Solutions:
Careful filtering
Proper channel assignments
Wireless Communications ,
f2
tor
era
Op
Interference resulting from
signals which are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal
This is due to imperfect receiver
filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the
passband.
Multihop Communication
FUTURE:
Investigation of techniques which allow low
power transmission while maintaining high transmission
rates
Possible solution:
Ad-hoc routing
(protocols)
Wireless Communications ,
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Ad hoc Communications
Quelle: WWRF
Wireless Communications ,
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Resource Allocation
Scheduling QoS support
HDR (High data rate)
Round robin
Proportional fair scheduling
Greedy rate packing
Channel assignment strategies:
Intra-cell vs inter-cell
Fixed channel assignment (FCA)
Dynamic channel assignment (DCA)
Combinatorial optimisation problem
NP-hard
Advantages/disadvantages of DCA:
- Radio signal strength measurements required
- Knowledge of traffic distribution required
- Control overhead
+ Reduced likelihood of blocking
+ Increased trunking capacity
Wireless Communications ,
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Scheduler
Queue of service 1 with data rata, R1
MS1
Queue of service 2 with data rata, R2
MS2
Scheduler
DL UL UL UL DL UL DL UL
Slot
Scheduling Parameters:
Queue of service n with data rata, Rn
Priority
Security
Delay
State of Queue
MSn
Instantaneous channel state
Channel state statistics
Wireless Communications ,
Frame
Page 38
Power Control
Constant SINR
Near-far effect
Impact on inter- and intracell interference
Uplink vs downlink power control
DL: point-to-multipoint
UL: Multipoint-to-point
Suppose B1 and B2 transmit at
the same power
A1
B2
BSA
BSB
A2
B1
Cell B
Wireless Communications ,
Cell A
Page 39
Handover
Dwell time:
The time a mobile is served by a particular BS
Dwell time is a random variable and an important
parameter for HO algorithms
The smaller the cell, the small the dwell time
Loss of spectral efficiency
Umbrella cells
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Handover
Requirements for successful MAHO
One carrier with constant Tx power in every cell
Free channel in target cell
Reservation of channels for handover
+ Minimising the risk of HO failure
Decreasing available traffic channels
Alternative: queuing of HO requests
Delay
Increased risk for signal falling below minimum threshold
In CDMA systems: Soft-handover
Exploitation of macro-diversity
Instantaneous link to several BSs
Combine receive signals
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