What is Research?

RESEARCH
“CAREFUL,CRITICAL,DISCIPLINED
INQUIRY,VARYING IN TECHNIQUE
AND METHOD ACCORDING TO THE
NATURE AND CONDITIONS OF THE
PROBLEM IDENTIFIED,DIRECTED
TOWARD THE CLARIFICATION OF A
PROBLEM”. ( Good, p. 464)
RESEARCH
“RESEARCH IS, SIMPLY, THE
SYSTEMATIC SEARCH FOR
PERTINENT INFORMATION ON A
SPECIFIC TOPIC OR PROBLEM”.
( Aquino, p. 1)
RESEARCH
“THE PROCESS OF GATHERING DATA
OR`INFORMATION TO SOLVE A
PARTICULAR OR SPECIFIC PROBLEM
IN A SCIENTIFIC MANNER”. ( Manuel &
Medel, p. 5)
RESEARCH
“A SYSTEMATIC STUDY OR
INVESTIGATION OF SOMETHING FOR
THE PURPOSE OF ANSWERING
QUESTIONS POSED BY THE
RESEARCHER”.
( Cited by Sanchez, p. 2)
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH IS SYSTEMATIC- IT
FOLLOWS AN ORDERLY AND
SEQUENTIAL PROCEDURE THAT
LEADS TO THE DISCOVERY OF
TRUTH, SOLUTION OF A PROBLEM,
OR WHATEVER IS AIMED TO BE
DISCOVERED.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH IS CONTROLLED- ALL
VARIABLES ARE KEPT CONSTANT.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH IS EMPIRICAL- ALL THE
PROCEDURES EMPLOYED AND THE
DATA GATHERED ARE PERCEIVED IN
THE SAME MANNER BY ALL
OBSERVERS.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH IS ANALYTICAL- THERE
IS A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF ALL DATA
USED.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH IS
OBJECTIVE,UNBIASED & LOGICAL-
ALL FINDINGS & CONCLUSIONS ARE
LOGICALLY BASED ON EMPIRICAL
DATA AND NO EFFORT IS MADE TO
ALTER THE RESULTS OF THE
RESEARCH.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH EMPLOYS HYPOTHESIS
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH EMPLOYS
QUANTITATIVE OR STATISTICAL
METHODS- DATA ARE TRANSFORMED
INTO NUMERICAL MEASURES AND
ARE TREATED STATISTICALLY TO
DETERMINE THEIR SIGNIFICANCE.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH IS ORIGINAL WORK
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH IS ACCURATE
INVESTIGATION,OBSERVATION AND
DESCRIPTION- ALL CONCLUSIONS
ARE BASED ON ACTUAL EVIDENCE.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH IS PATIENT &
UNHURRIED ACTIVITY – THIS IS TO
ENSURE ACCURACY.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
➢RESEARCH REQUIRES COURAGE
IMPORTANT ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
➢ THE RIGHT TO REMAIN
ANONYMOUS- ANY PARTICIPANT IN
HUMAN RESEARCH HAS THE RIGHT
TO REMAIN ANONYMOUS.
ANONYMITY IS KEPT BY FEATURING
GROUP DATA RATHER THAN
INDIVIDUAL DATA.
IMPORTANT ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
➢ THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY- A PARTICIPANT
MAY NOT WANT TO REVEAL SOME
INFORMATION ABOUT HIM
SELF/HERSELF.
➢ THE RIGHT TO CONFIDENTIALITY-
PARTICIPANTS HAVE THE RIGHT TO
INSIST THE DATA COLLECTED FROM
THEM BE TREATED WITH
CONFIDENTIALITY.
IDENTIFYING LIMITATIONS

➢NO RESEARCH IS PERFECT OF ITS

DESIGN AND A RESEARCHER MUST
BE HONEST TO OPENLY EXPRESS
SUCH LIMITATIONS SO THAT OTHER
RESEARCHERS WILL NOT REPEAT
THE MISTAKES.
RESEARCH FRAUD
➢TAMPERING DATA
➢FABRICATION OF DATA
➢SUPPRESSION OF DATA
➢BIAS IN RECORDING ACTUAL
OBSERVATIONS
➢SELECTIVE RECORDING OF DATA
➢STOLEN OF DATA
➢PLAGIARISM
GUIDE TO RESEARCH AND DESIGN
➢WHEN THE RESEARCH STUDY HAS
BEEN FORMULATED, THE NEXT STEP
IS TO CONSTRUCT THE RESEARCH
DESIGN. THIS IS THE PLAN OF
ATTACK; WHAT APPROACH TO THE
PROBLEM WILL BE TAKEN; WHAT
METHODS WILL BE USED;WHAT
STRATEGIES WILL BE MOST
EFFECTIVE.
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH

1. HISTORICAL-BASED ON DESCRIBING
THE PAST. INCLUDES INVESTIGATIONS
LIKE RECORDING,ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF EVENTS IN THE PAST
WITH THE PURPOSE OF DISCOVERING
GENERALIZATIONS AND DEDUCTIONS
THAT CAN BE USEFUL IN UNDERSTANDING
THE PAST, THE PRESENT AND TO A
LIMITED EXTENT CAN ANTICIPATE THE
FUTURE.
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH

1. HISTORICAL- [WHAT WAS] ITS

PURPOSE IS TO RECONSTRUCT THE
PAST OBJECTIVELY AND
ACCURATELY OFTEN IN RELATION TO
THE TENABILITY OF HYPOTHESIS.
[justified in a fair or rational way and able to be defended because there
is sufficient evidence or reason]
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH

2. DESCRIPTIVE-[WHAT IS] TO
DESCRIBE SYSTEMATICALLY A
SITUATION OR AREA OF INTEREST
FACTUALLY AND ACCURATELY. THE
EMPHASIS IS ON DESCRIBE RATHER
THAN ON JUDGE OR INTERPRET.
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH

3. DEVELOPMENTAL- ITS PURPOSE IS

TO INVESTIGATE PATTERNS AND
SEQUENCES OF GROWTH &/OR
CHANGE AS A FUNCTION OF TIME.
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH

4. CASE & FIELD ITS PURPOSE IS TO

STUDY INTENSIVELY THE
BACKGROUND,CURRENT
STATUS,AND ENVIRONMENTAL
INTERACTIONS OF A GIVEN SOCIAL
UNIT, AN
INDIVIDUAL,GROUP,INSTITUTION OR
COMMUNITY.
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH
5. CORRELATIONAL- [RELATIONSHIP ] ITS
PURPOSE IS TO INVESTIGATE THE
EXTENT TO WHICH VARIATIONS IN
ONE FACTOR CORRESPOND WITH
VARIATION IN OR MORE OTHER
FACTORS BASED ON
CORRELATIONAL COEFFICIENTS.
[statistical measure: a number or function indicating the degree of
correlation between two variables. It ranges between 1 for high positive
correlation to -1 for high negative correlation, with 0 indicating a purely
random relationship .]
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH
6. CAUSAL COMPARATIVE OR EX
POST FACTO- ITS PURPOSE IS TO
INVESTIGATE POSSIBLE
CONSEQUENCES AND SEARCHING
BACK THROUGH THE DATA FOR
PLAUSIBLE CAUSAL FACTORS.
believable and appearing likely to be
true, usually in the absence of proof
relationship of cause and effect
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH
6. CAUSAL COMPARATIVE OR EX
POST FACTO
IN OTHER WORDS IT IS A STUDY THAT
ATTEMPTS TO DISCOVER THE PRE
EXISTING CAUSAL CONDITIONS
BETWEEN GROUPS. HOWEVER, THE
MOST SERIOUS DANGER OF EX POST
FACTO RESEARCH IS THE
CONCLUSION BECAUSE 2 FACTORS
GO TOGETHER, ONE IS THE CAUSE
AND THE OTHER IS THE EFFECT.
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH
7. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL- ITS
PURPOSE IS TO INVESTIGATE
POSSIBLE CAUSE & EFFECT
RELATIONSHIPS BY EXPOSING ONE
OR MORE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
TO ONE OR MORE TREATMENT
CONDITIONS AND COMPARING THE
RESULT TO ONE OR MORE CONTROL
GROUPS NOT RECEIVING THE
TREATMENT ( RANDOM SAMPLING
BEING ESSENTIAL).
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH
8. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL- ITS
PURPOSE IS TO APPROXIMATE THE
CONDITIONS OF THE TRUE
EXPERIMENT IN A SETTING,WHICH
DOES NOT FOLLOW THE
CONTROL,AND/OR MANIPULATION OF
ALL RELEVANT VARIABLES.
NINE BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH

9. ACTION- ITS PURPOSE IS TO

DEVELOP NEW SKILLS OR NEW
APPROACHES AND TO SOLVE
PROBLEM WITH DIRECT APPLICATION
TO THE CLASSROOM OR OTHER
APPLIED SETTING. IT SHOULD BE
APPLICABLE IMMEDIATELY
The Research
Process
 Objectives
This discussion will :
1. Introduce the concept of the' research
process;
2. Outline the different stages of this
process.
3. Describe how the different stages
interrelate as part of one overall process
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Problem/Objectives

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Hypotheses

Research Design

Data Collection

Data Processing & Analysis

Data Interpretation and Discussion

Conclusions and
Recommendations/Implications
 Stage 1: Selection of Topic
• This stage will take up most if not all
of your time at the beginning, from
selecting a topic, developing a
preliminary research question and set
of objectives.
• Inappropriate topic or question will
often lead to irretrievable difficulties if
this is not addressed at the start.
 Stage 1: Selection of Topic
• It usually describes the situation of
the subject of study.
• Or is provides the background
information regarding the problem
and the situation wherein the problem
exists.
• It also explicates on the reasons why
the problem was selected and the
facts about it.
 Stage 1: Selection of Topic
• It usually describes the situation of
the subject of study.
• Or is provides the background
information regarding the problem
and the situation wherein the problem
exists.
• It also explicates on the reasons why
the problem was selected and the
facts about it.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM
• the variables in the problem must be clear
• it should be limited in scope and should be
specific,
• It must have a goal
• it should be free from ethical constraints
• good research problem must be
researchable.
 SOURCES OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM
• Social problems like unemployment,
crimes, teenage pregnancy, poverty, etc
• theory deduction
• funding agencies
• past researches and literature review
• casual observation
• related literature
 SOURCES OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM

• current social and economic issues

• personal interest and experience
• replication of previous studies
• clarification of contradictory research
results
 Stage 2: Reviewing the
Literature
• A literature review essentially consists
of critically reading, evaluating and
organizing existing literature on the
topic to assess the state of knowledge
in the area.
• Literature review is generally done
alongside the development of the
theoretical and conceptual framework.
Review of the Related Conceptual
and Research Literature
• This is concerned with:
• (1) conceptual literature or literature
coming from books, journals and
other non-data materials, and
• (2) research literature, which is
empirically based, consists of findings
in theses and dissertations.
Review of the Related Conceptual
and Research Literature
• In gathering materials for your review of
related literature, go to the library and
check over encyclopedias or different
journals on the topic.
• In the National Library or any library for
that matter, there are card indices which
will describe the different topics. This is
also true in gathering your research
literature.
Functions of the Research Literature
• a. It provides you the concepts or
theoretical framework of the planned
research.
• b. It provides you with the information
about past researches related to your
intended study.
• c. It gives you a feeling of confidence
since by means of the review of related
literature you will have on hand all the
constructs related to your study.
Functions of the Research Literature
d.It gives you information about the research
methods used, the population and
sampling considered, the instruments
used in gathering data, and the statistical
techniques and computation employed in
previous research.
e.It provides findings and conclusions of
past investigations which may relate to
your own findings and conclusions.
Functions of the Research Literature

f. Wilson (1989) add: It offers not a mere

bibliography but an analytical and critical
appraisal of the important and recent
substantive and methodological
developments in the researcher’s area of
interest and indicates how the study will
refine, revise, extend or transcend what is
now known.
Functions of the Research Literature
g. It informs and lends support to the
researcher’s assumptions, operational
definitions of terms and even
methodological procedures by
demonstrating that the study has profited
from the scholarly and scientific work that
has preceded it.
 How to Conduct the Review of
Related Literature
• a. After you have chosen a problem for
your study, your review of the literature is
more definite and concentrated. Your first
tendency is to grab any book even in your
private library.
• b. Go to the library. Browse over books,
magazines, journals, periodicals,
encyclopedias, or theses for possible
literature. Be patient in reading these
materials.
 How to Conduct the Review of
Related Literature

• c. It is not possible to do this in just one

sitting. You have to go back to the library a
lot of times.
• d. All your notes should be recorded on
index cards, one card to an author or
source.
 How to Conduct the Review of
Related Literature
e.In presenting a study, mention the writer,
his objectives and findings of the research
in your own words. Give the findings of the
study which is related to the purposes or
the statement of your problem. If your
topic is about job satisfaction, then give
the findings of the study related to job
satisfaction. Do not forget to document
such paper.
 Sources of Related Literature
• 1) Libraries - Theories are the most or
the main sources of conceptual research
literature. Aside from the school library,
there is the National Library. Lately, the
National Library has always given a copy
of all researches, theses and dissertations,
all over the country.
• 2) Different Organizations – different
business corporations can also give data
regarding researches on business and
commerce.
 Sources of Related Literature
3)Periodicals, Books and Articles – These are
research journals furnished by different
government agencies like the NEDA and the
NCSO.
4)Theses and dissertations – on topics desired to
write on. There is the International Abstracts found
in big libraries in Manila, like Ateneo de Manila
University, Centro Escolar University and various
schools which subscribe to this. It has all the
theses abstracts of researches conducted in all
schools in the United States with subjects from A
to Z. This is a very rich source of research
literature.
 Stage 3: Development of
Theoretical and Conceptual
Frameworks
• Framework is the vital part of the
research process and it is important
in alerting you to potential problems
before they occur.
 The Framework
• There are two types of framework.
• One is the theoretical framework while
the other is the conceptual
framework. Both provide direction for
the study.
 Theoretical Framework
• The theoretical framework as basis for
study normally validates a given
theory or yields another theory.
• This refers to the underlying
theoretical approach that you adopt to
underpin your study.
 Conceptual Framework
• The conceptual framework is defines
and organizes the concepts important
within the study.
• The researcher considers all variables
as he perceives the relation of each to
the others in the study.
• The relationship of these variables
with each other is explained in this
section.
 Stage 4: Clarification of the
Research Question

• Stages 1, 2 and 3 of the research process

will initially, in many cases, become a
circular process, whereby initial research
questions are chosen, investigated and often
rejected for a number of reasons
Among them:
• The question lacks sufficient focus.
• The conceptual framework has identified
problems in either defining and/or
measuring the appropriate concepts.
• There are too many moderating or
intervening variables.
• The project is unfeasible in terms of
complexity, access, facilities or resources.
What is the Issue?

GAP
 Statement of the Problem
• Level 1. Level 1 questions are asked when the
researcher has limited knowledge of the topic. They
usually start with “what” and are exploratory in nature.
They are prominent in descriptive researches.
• Example 1. What is the profile of the respondents
in terms of:
• a. age,
• b. sex and
• c. educational attainment?
• As a matter of fact, profile studies are of Level 1
inquiry.
 Statement of the Problem
Level 2. Questions on relationships or effects of
variables are of Level 2 inquiry.
• Example 2. Is there a relationship between long
exposure to x-rays and cancer among radiologists?
•
• Level 3. Level 3 research questions are those
which assume relationships and effects and ask “why”
of the results. This type of questions involves more
variables, outcomes, and predictions.
• Example 3. To what extent do mental ability and
home environment factors influence learning of
students in Topology?
•
 Statement of the Problem

• Example 4. How effective is the prediction

on grades in English when information on
hours of study habits and mental ability
are known?
 Stage 5: Research Design
• Once the focused research
question has been
ascertained, the next stage
is to consider two
questions:
• 1. What data do I need to
collect to answer this
question?
• 2. What is the best way to
collect this data?
 Issues Faced by
Researchers
• What overall research design should I
use? Will I use qualitative or quantitative?
Will it be descriptive or experimental?
• Will I need to collect primary data, or will
there be suitable secondary data to use?
• What methods, for example, interviews,
questionnaire surveys and so on, will be
the best ones to collect the primary data?
 Issues Faced by
Researchers
• Who should participate in the research,
and how will I gain access to them?
• What are the exact procedures that I
should adopt in my data collection to
ensure reliability and validity?
Stage 6: DATA COLLECTION

• Once the issues identified in Stage 4 and

5 of the research process have been
addressed, then you should have a clear
idea of what data to collect and how to
collect it.
• Consider the methodology to use and
which methods to utilize within the
methodology.
 Data Collection Techniques

• Interviews
• Questionnaires and Surveys
• Observations
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographies, Oral History,
and Case Studies
• Documents and Records
 Stage 7: Data Analysis and
Discussion of the Findings
• The data you collect in Stage 6 needs to
be analyzed and provide answers to your
research question.
• Methods of data analysis should always
be related to the objectives of the
research, that is your analysis should
answer the research question or
hypothesis.
 Stage 7: Data Analysis and
Discussion of the Findings
• References should be made back to the
literature reviewed in Stage 2; for
example, how do the findings add to this
literature?
• Do they support the literature?
• If not, what are the possible reasons why?
Stage 7: Data Analysis and
Discussion of the Findings
• Common fault is to
discuss the findings
with no reference
back to the literature
reviewed as part of
Stage 2 of the
development of the
conceptual
framework.
Stage 8: Drawing Conclusions
• This should relate back to the focused
research question
• You can evaluate how successful you
have been in achieving your research
objectives, and high light the strengths and
weaknesses of the research.
Stage 8: Drawing Conclusions

• Hence, the answer to the research

question should be clearly stated.
• You may also want recommendations for
further research.
 IN SUMMARY
• Research is not just about collection of
data.
• Research process follows 8 steps:
selection of topic, review of the literature,
developing framework, clarifying research
question, developing research design,
collecting data, analyzing data, and
drawing conclusions.
 IN SUMMARY
• Data collection is important, but is simply
part of a wider process – the Research
Process.
• Relating your project to the research
process will allow you to develop and
answer your research question in a logical
and systematic manner.
 Problem/Objectives

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Hypotheses

Research Design

Data Collection

Data Processing & Analysis

Data Interpretation and Discussion

Conclusions and Recommendations/Implications

CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM
Project Description:
Describe/define what the Proposal is all about.

2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

3. DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT

How will your project function to solve the community
problem?
4. GOAL AND OBJECTIVES
5. SCOPE AND LIMITATION
6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH/STUDY
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
1. THE MATERIALS MUST BE AS RECENT AS
POSSIBLE.- This is important because of the rapid
social,political,scientific, and technological changes.

2. MATERIALS MUST BE AS OBJECTIVE AND

UNBIASED AS POSSIBLE- some materials are
extremely one sided, either politically or religiously
biased. These should be avoided.

3. MATERIALS MUST BE RELEVANT TO THE

STUDY- only materials that have some similarity to
or bearing on the problem researched on, should
be cited.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
4. MATERIALS MUST NOT BE TOO FEW BUT NOT TOO
MANY- they must be sufficient enough to give the
researcher insight into his problem or to indicate the
nature of the present investigation. For undergraduate
thesis, about 10 may do.

WAYS OF CITING RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

1. BY AUTHOR
Example: According to Enriquez, praise helps much in
learning………….
2. BY TOPIC- if different authors have the same opinion about
the same topic, the topic is discussed and cited the names
of the authors.
Example: It has been found out that praise is an important aid
in the learning of children. ( Pedro Enriquez, The Dynamics
of Teaching and Learning, p. 102 and Juan Maglaque, Factors
Affecting Children’s Learning .)
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

3. CHRONOLOGICAL- materials which were written earlier

should be cited first before those which were written later.
WHAT TO CITE- it should be emphasized that only the major
findings, ideas or conclusions in related materials relevant
to the problem under investigation should be discussed in
this chapter and summarized, paraphrased or synthesized.
QUOTING A MATERIAL- a material may be quoted if the idea
conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is controversial and it is
not too long. It is written single spaced with wider margins
at the left and right sides of the paper but without any
quotation marks.
Example: Said Enriquez,
Praise is an important factor in children’s
learning. It encourages them to study their lessons harder.
Praise, however, should be given very appropriately.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES

The method of research should be explained briefly.The

procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to
the study, and some of its advantages should be given
attention and should be well discussed.

Method of Collecting Data and Development of the

Research Instrument

The sampling Design- before the collection of data starts in

any research project, the proportion of the population to
be used must have been determined already and the
computation of the sample must have been finished.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES
STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA- the last part of this
chapter usually describes the statistical treatment of
data.The kind of statistical treatment depends upon the
nature of the problem, especially the specific problems,
and the nature of the data gathered. The explicit
hypotheses particularly determine the kind of statistics
to be used.
THE ROLE OF STATISTICS IN RESEARCH
1. Directs the researcher how to gather his data.
2. Helps in determining the validity and reliability of the
research.
3. Use to test the hypotheses ( accepted or rejected).
4. Gives meaning and interpretation to data.
5. The statistical measures are the bases for making
inferences, interpretations, conclusions .
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES
SOME GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION AND
APPLICATION OF STATISTICAL PROCEDURES.
1. When certain proportions of the population based on
certain variables such as age, height, income, etc. are
desired to be known, frequency counts with their
frequency percents may be used.
Example: “How may the high school science teachers of
province a be described in terms of gender?”
The males were counted and the females were also counted
and their respective percent equivalents were computed.
2. When the typical, normal or average is desired to be
known, the measure of central tendency such as median,
the mean or the mode may be computed and used.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES
3. When the variables being studies are abstract or
continuous such as they cannot be counted individually
such as adequacy, efficiency, excellence, extent,
seriousness, the weighted mean may be computed and
used if the average is desired to be known.
Example: “ How adequate are the facilities of the school?”
Adequacy may be divided into five degrees or quality
such as “very adequate” with a weight of 5 “adequate”
with a weight of 4 “fairly adequate” 3 “inadequate” 2
“very inadequate” 1. Then the weighted mean is
computed.
4. When the variability of the population is desired to be
known the measures of variability such as range, quartile
deviation, average deviation or the standard deviation
may be used.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES
5. When the relative placements of scores or positions are
desired to be known, ranking, quartile or percentile rank.

6. For significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of

persons as a group toward a certain issue, situation,
value or thing but in which there is neutral position, the
chi –square of equal probability, single group, is
computed and interpreted.

7. When the significance of the difference between the

reaction or opinions of 2 distinct groups in which there is
neutral position, the chi square of equal probability, two
group.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES
Example: a group of 50 persons,25 males and 25 females, were asked to
give their reactions to increasing the number of years in
elementary school.Their reactions may be “Strongly agree”,
“agree”, “undecided”,”Disagree”, or “ Strongly disagree”. If the
persons are considered as a group, the chi square of equal
probability, single group is computed. However, if the significance of
the difference between the reactions of the males and those of the
females is to be studied, the chi square of equal probability, two
group is applied.

8. To determine how one variable varies with one another, the

coefficient of correlation is computed.
Example: How the scores of a group of students in a mathematics vary
with the scores of the same group of students in an english test.
This is also used to determine the validity of a test by correlating it
with a test of known validity. When the coefficient of correlation
between the two test is known and a prediction is to be made as to
what score a student gets in a second test after knowing his score
in the first, the so called regression equation is to be utilized.
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES
9. To determine the relative effectiveness of the different
ways of doing thing to which different randomized
groups are respectively exposed to and only a post test is
given to the different groups, analysis of variance is
appropriate to use.
Example: A teacher wants to find out the relative
effectiveness of the following methods of
communication: pure lecture, lecture-demonstration,
recitation-discussion, and seminar type of instruction in
science. Four groups of students are formed randomly
and each assigned to one method.The four groups study
the same lessons and after a certain period given the
same test. By anova, the relative effectiveness of the four
methods will be revealed.