Software

 Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions
for telling a computer what to do and how to do it.
 Any set of instructions that guides the hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task.

System Software

 System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware to provide basic functionality and to
provide a platform for running application software.
 Refers to the operating system and all utility programs that manage computer resources at a low level.
 The BIOS (basic input/output system) gets the computer system started after you turn it on and manages the data flow
between the operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse, and printer.
 The boot program loads the operating system into the computer's main memory or random-access memory (RAM).
 System software also includes system utilities, such as the disk defragmenter and System Restore.

The Operating System

The Operating System is a collection of programs that perform a variety of tasks or functions. The tasks performed by the
operating system (OS) involve communicating with the disk drives, printers, hard disks, CD-ROMs, monitor, modem and
other peripheral devices. The operating system performs also memory management task such as keeping track of how the
memory of the computer is being used so that no job would conflict with another job performed at the other parts of the
memory. Moreover, operating system performs data management. It provides a level of system security that protects a
certain type of data or information. It acts like a clerk locating and accessing files and programs which are requested by the
user.

The DOS (Disk Operating System)

In 1980’s and early 1990’s, DOS dominates the market as a standard operating system for personal
computers. This operating system is designed with a character-based user interface, meaning we have to type a
command to perform a particular task, like copying, deleting, transferring, or running a certain program or
software. Unlike in Windows operating system, we just simply use the mouse to point and click and drag to
accomplish the above-mentioned task. There are two versions of DOS that reigned as an operating system of
choice during that time. The first one is called IBM PC-DOS and Microsoft MS-DOS. The DOS operating system
suffered a lot of weaknesses or limitations. For example, it supports a limited amount of RAM, it has no built-in
support for networking and supports only 16-bit programs.

Microsoft Windows Operating System

In early 1990’s, Microsoft released Windows 3.0, 3.1 and 3.11 that requires MSDOS to be installed first
completely. It runs on top of DOS to provide a GUI and additional capabilities.
In August 1995, the Microsoft released their Windows 95. A total enhancement of the Windows 3.1 and 3.11
which were used by few computer users in the early 1990’s who wanted to a graphical user-interface (GUI) type of
operating system. This time, the DOS is no longer needed for its installation, configuration and operation. Windows
95 puts all data communication activities in a single screen icon. These activities are e-mail, downloads, and
Internet access. Windows 95 supports the “plug-and-play” feature. This concept lets the computer to configure
itself when a new computer peripheral is added, connected, or installed.
 Windows 98 is considered just an update to Windows 95. One noticeable change in Windows 98is the
inclusion of the Internet Explorer (IE) Web browser, and the Active Desktop that lets the user to browse
the Internet and local drive of the PC or Laptop in a similar manner.
 The Windows Me (Millennium Edition) offers more enhancements such as digital video editing, improved
multi-media support and capabilities, and enhanced Internet features. The main problem with Windows
Me is that its unstable operation results to frequent crashes.
 The Windows 2000 Professional combines the user-friendly interface of Windows 98 and a networking
power of Windows NT. Its main feature is a support for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) with up to two
microprocessors (CPUs).
  The Windows NT (New Technology) was released in 1993 before Windows 95. It was originally designed
as the successor of DOS, but it turned out to be repositioned as a high-end operating system for powerful
workstation (Windows NT Workstation) and network servers (Windows NT Server) used heavily in
business operations.
 With the release of Windows XP (Home Edition for personal use and Professional Edition for corporate
networks operations) in October 2001, the PC desktop has more three-dimensional (3D) look, with more
shading and rounded corners, and offers more brighter color choices. It supports 64-bit CPU. With its
digital media support, the user can take advantage of video and audio rendering for multimedia projects
and digital broadcast support. The Advanced Networking and Communications feature of Windows XP,
the user can now enjoy the more enhanced Plug and Play support which enable the computer to find and
use the hardware connected via a network, without forcing the user to configure the system or install the
required drivers. With the Internet Connection Sharing feature, the user can connect multiple PCs to the
Internet via a single connection. Through the use of Advanced Mobile Computing automatic configuration
feature, the user can connect an XP-based Laptop to a PC without the need-to-know different type of
network settings. Plus, the IrComm modem support will allow us to use a cellular phone to connect to the
Internet.

Other Operating System

 Linux
The Linux is a multi-tasking operating system that supports multiple users and multiple processors. Linux can run
on nearly any type of computers (from Desktop, Laptop, Server, and Supercomputers), and supports almost any type of
software applications. The most popular Linux operating system distributions are from Red Hat Linux and Novell Linux. Most
of the Linux distributions are free. Meaning, you can get it without worrying about licenses or online activation.

 UNIX
The UNIX operating system has been popular for high-powered workstations that are used in engineering and scientific
applications. It is also heavily used in a mission critical application such as Web servers that are used for online transactions,
maintaining Internet domain names, large database servers of banks, manufacturing companies, and pharmaceutical firms.

 Mac OS X
The new Apple Macintosh operating system, popularly known as Mac OS X, is based on the UNIX operating system code (the
BSD (Berkley System Distribution) UNIX). The Mac OS is heavily favored by graphics artists, multi-media developers, and
media publishers. This is due to its highly powerful graphics features and capabilities. Graphics artists who created cartoon
movies and TV cartoon series, TV, magazine, and newspaper advertisements, are using iMac computers as their tools for their
creative works.
Application Software
 A program or group of programs designed for end users
 Allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (non-computer related) tasks.

Word processor is a software program capable of creating, storing, and printing documents.
 Unlike the standard typewriter, users using word processors have the ability of creating a document and making any
changes anywhere in the document.
 This document can also be saved for modification at a later time or to be opened on any other computer using the same
word processor.
Word Processor Features
 Insert text
 Delete text
 Cut and paste
 Copy
 Page size and margins
 Search and replace
 Print

Word Processor Examples

 Microsoft Word
 WordPro
 AppleWorks
Spreadsheet
 Spreadsheet is a data file made up of rows and columns that are used to sort data and allow a user to manipulate and
arrange data easily, commonly numerical data.
 What makes a spreadsheet software program most unique is its ability to calculate values using mathematical formulas and
the data in the cells.
Spreadsheet Features:
 Formulas
 Functions
 Charts
 Cut/Copy/Paste with single cells or ranges of cells
 Cells formatting
 Cells merging

Spreadsheet Examples
 Microsoft Excel
 Lotus 1-2-3
 Apple Numbers
 OpenOffice Calc

Presentation Software
 A presentation program is a software program that helps create a slideshow that addresses a topic.
 Presentation programs are often used in businesses and schools for discussing a topic or for teaching.
 It typically includes three major functions:
o an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted
o a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images
o a slide-show system to display the content
Features:
 Insert Slide
 Deletion of Inserted slides
 Allows cut and paste slides in any order.
 Allows duplication content or slide
  Allows you to display the presentation designed in a slide show system. (View Slide Feature)
 Allows animations and/or sounds manipulations on objects in the slide.

Example:
 Microsoft PowerPoint
 Adobe Persuasion
 Hypercard
 OpenOffice Impress
 Scala Multimedia

Database Management System (DBMS) Software

 A program that controls the organization, storage, management, and retrieval of data in a database.
 Users can create tables, queries, forms and reports.
Example:
 Microsoft Access
 Oracle Database
 MySQL
 FoxPro

Desktop Publishing Software

 Used to produce high-quality printed documents such as magazine, greeting card, posters, etc.
 Allows you to use different typefaces, specify various margins and justifications, and embed illustrations and graphs directly
into the text
Example:
 Adobe Indesign
 QuarkXpress
 MS Publisher

Web Browser Applications

 Browser software allows a user to access and interact with websites (written in HTML, translated into readable content) on
the internet. Most browsers support external plugins required to display active content, e.g. in-page video, audio, and Flash
content. Browsers are available with different features and are designed to run on different operating systems.
Example:
 Internet Explorer
 Google Chrome
 Firefox
 Safari

Graphic and Design Applications

 refers to apps and programs those graphic designers use to create, edit, and manipulate digital images. They allow
designers edit and resize images, produce original illustrations, combine text, color, and shapes, and bring their vision to
life.
Example:
 Adobe Photoshop
 Canva
 AutoCAD
 Pixlr

Communication Software
  The core defining feature is that the program is designed to transfer information between multiple parties or devices. The
main benefit of using communication software is that it creates a network in which devices can easily be identified and
managed.

Example:
 Email
 Skype
 Google Meet
 Slack
 Zoom
 FB Messenger

Understanding Basic Computer Security

Threats and Countermeasures
Awareness is the first step to good computer security. This is according to Peter Norton, the author of the book where this
book is mainly based and a principal developer of Norton Anti-virus and Utilities. Safeguarding our PC and its valuable information is
very important to us and to our work. Imagine if a virus erases or destroys our documents that must be submitted in a matter of few
hours. Or attacked by a hacker who slows down our connection to the network, thus put all our online-intensive work to crawl. We
should understand all the dangers that specifically threaten our computer system. We need to know how each threat can affect our
work and prioritize them accordingly.
Threats and Countermeasures

A threat is anything that can cause harm to our computer resources. In the context of computer security, a threat can be a
virus infection or an attack by a hacker. Now if we don’t use any anti-virus software, our computer will become very vulnerable to
virus infections. If we don’t turn-on the Firewall capability of our operating system or did not implement a Firewall to our computer
network system, we are vulnerable to a hacker’s attack.

How about applying countermeasure posed by a virus infection or a hacker attack? We can apply regular backup process of our
data. This will be our countermeasure against the threat of data loss caused by virus infection. Putting a firewall to our computer
network system is our countermeasure against a possible attack by a hacker. In other words, countermeasure is our step to ward off
a threat, thus protecting our data from harm.

Cybercrime
Any act of stealing hardware and software resources are classified as cybercrime. But a cybercrime is more than just stealing
the physical resources of the computer, it is also about a fraudulent act. A fraud such as stealing account information from
unsuspecting customers, non-delivery of services or merchandise that are ordered online, or an online auction of something that did
not exist, or some ATM card debit fraud or an international credit card debit fraud. Imagine if you are charge with a big amount in
your credit card of the things you didn’t purchase? Or losing a lot of money from your ATM card, because someone is withdrawing
from it.

What are the types of cybercrime?

Types of cybercrime include:
 Email and internet fraud.
 Identity fraud (where personal information is stolen and used).
 Theft of financial or card payment data.
 Theft and sale of corporate data.
 Cyberextortion (demanding money to prevent a threatened attack).
 Ransomware attacks (a type of cyberextortion).
 Crypto jacking (where hackers mine cryptocurrency using resources they do not own).
 Cyberespionage (where hackers access government or company data).
 Interfering with systems in a way that compromises a network.
 Infringing copyright.
  Illegal gambling.
 Selling illegal items online.
 Soliciting, producing, or possessing child pornography.

Cyberterrorism
Cyberterrorism is an act of attacking the mission-critical information technology infrastructure and government network
system of a particular country. One of the goals of cyberterrorism is to gain control to key computer network systems that control
and monitor electric power grids, telecommunication system infrastructure, power plants, and water treatment plants. Their plans
could be to disrupt electric power grid operation or shutting down telecommunication control system.

Firewalls
Putting firewalls in our computer system network is our best defense against the possible attack of a hacker. This is the
countermeasure that we can apply in our computing task.
Firewalls can be both a hardware device with a software on it or purely a software that runs in your Personal Computer (PC),
Laptop, or in a company’s main computer called Server, or in powerful Internet device called Router.

The Microsoft Internet Connection Firewall, Norton Firewall, CheckPoint Firewall are the type of software that we can use to
set restrictions on the information that is communicated between your PC at home or in a company’s server.
The “stateful” firewall like the Microsoft firewall, monitors and tracks all aspects of communications that cross its path and
examines the source and destination IP (Internet Protocol) address of each packet or data that the firewall handles. The firewall
keeps a table of all communications that have originated from the computer that is running the firewall, in order to prevent
unsolicited or malicious traffic from the public side of the connection from entering the private side of the connection. The firewall
compares all inbound traffic from the Internet to the entries in the table. The inbound Internet traffic is permitted only to reach your
PC or in the computer network of the company, if and only if there is a matching entry in the table that shows that the data
communication exchange began in your PC or in a company’s private network such as the Intranet or Local Area Networks (LANs).
The firewall automatically drops or discards any unsolicited data communications it detected. In this process, the firewall will be
able to stop common hacking attempts of the hackers and intruders through port scanning technique.

Types of Hacking/Hackers
 Black Hat Hackers
Black hat hackers are the "bad guys" of the hacking scene. They go out of their way to discover vulnerabilities in computer systems
and software to exploit them for financial gain or for more malicious purposes, such as to gain reputation, carry out corporate
espionage, or as part of a nation-state hacking campaign.
These individuals’ actions can inflict serious damage on both computer users and the organizations they work for. They can steal
sensitive personal information, compromise computer and financial systems, and alter or take down the functionality of websites
and critical networks.
 White Hat Hackers
White hat hackers can be seen as the “good guys” who attempt to prevent the success of black hat hackers through proactive
hacking. They use their technical skills to break into systems to assess and test the level of network security, also known as ethical
hacking. This helps expose vulnerabilities in systems before black hat hackers can detect and exploit them.
The techniques white hat hackers use is similar to or even identical to those of black hat hackers, but these individuals are hired by
organizations to test and discover potential holes in their security defenses.
 Grey Hat Hackers
Grey hat hackers sit somewhere between the good and the bad guys. Unlike black hat hackers, they attempt to violate standards
and principles but without intending to do harm or gain financially. Their actions are typically carried out for the common good. For
example, they may exploit a vulnerability to raise awareness that it exists, but unlike white hat hackers, they do so publicly. This
alerts malicious actors to the existence of the vulnerability.

Hacking
 Hacking is an illegal act of accessing the computer resources of some people without their knowledge or permission, or
unauthorized access into company’s network system. Usually, a hacker uses a network or Internet connection to connect to some
other people’s computer or a particular company’s computer network, in order to corrupt, change, or destroy data.

Hacker employs the sniffing technique where he or she tries to guess the password of the hapless victim. Or in a more highly
sophisticated way, he or she would capture the password of the victim using some type of malware. This malware would capture the
password, then it will send the password to him or her.

The other technique used by a hacker is the IP spoofing. In this technique, the hacker intercepts the data while it is
transmitted or gain access to the computer network system by posing as an authorized user. The hacker was able to gain entry
because he or she pretends to be using a legitimate computer or workstation connected to the network with an IP address that is
belong to the network where he or she was accessing.

Another technique used by the hacker is called phishing. In this technique, the hacker may contact the unsuspecting victim by
e-mail, and ask the victim to provide password information for an apparent legitimate reason. Like for example, the hacker wanted
to get your name as well as the CD key of the software you purchased or it’s registration number. In this way, the hacker can use the
software you purchased since he or she would be required by the software company to enter the name of the one who purchase the
software as well as the registration number, because only the legitimate purchaser of the software can enjoy the free updates and
technical support.

Identity Theft
Identity theft is a technology term used when someone impersonates you. His or her impersonation ranges from using your
name, Identification Card, SSS number, or your other personal information in order to get a document or credit in your behalf,
without you knowing it.

Now how the identity theft could steal your money in the bank? By shoulder surfing! Shoulder surfing is simply watching
someone who withdraws on the ATM machine, and getting to know his or her PIN (Personal Identification Number) number. An
identity theft could also use wire-tapping (by using a telephone line extension) so that he or she can listen to your conversation on
the telephone as you give your credit card number or other pertinent personal information to a credit card agent. The technology
term for this one is snagging.

An identity theft could also use the dumpster diving technique where he or she can go to garbage cans or trash bins to get your
cancelled checks, bank deposit slips, or credit card statements.

One of the most predominant sources of identity theft technique is called social engineering where the theft tricks the
unsuspecting victim into providing critical information under the pretext of something legitimate such as pretending to be the one
who is in authority. Like for example, someone who claimed to be a webmaster and would like to check if the victim’s online record
such as SSS contribution is already qualified to make a salary loan. Since the hapless victim has a plan to file a salary loan, he or she
would reveal his login-name and password to the decoy’s webmaster.

Devices Most Vulnerable To Hacking

 Smart Devices
Smart devices, such as smartphones, are lucrative targets for hackers. Android devices, in particular, have a more open-source and
inconsistent software development process than Apple devices, which puts them at risk of data theft or corruption. However,
hackers are increasingly targeting the millions of devices connected to the Internet of Things (IoT).
 Webcams
Webcams built into computers are a common hacking target, mainly because hacking them is a simple process. Hackers typically
gain access to a computer using a Remote Access Trojan (RAT) in rootkit malware, which allows them to not only spy on users but
also read their messages, see their browsing activity, take screenshots, and hijack their webcam.

 Routers
Hacking routers enables an attacker to gain access to data sent and received across them and networks that are accessed on them.
Hackers can also hijack a router to carry out wider malicious acts such as distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, Domain Name
System (DNS) spoofing, or cryptomining.
 Email
Email is one of the most common targets of cyberattacks. It is used to spread malware and ransomware and as a tactic for phishing
attacks, which enable attackers to target victims with malicious attachments or links.
 Jailbroken Phones
Jailbreaking a phone means removing restrictions imposed on its operating system to enable the user to install applications or other
software not available through its official app store. Aside from being a violation of the end-user’s license agreement with the phone
developer, jailbreaking exposes many vulnerabilities. Hackers can target jailbroken phones, which allows them to steal any data on
the device but also extend their attack to connected networks and systems.

Online Spying Tools

The software developers have created a lot of tracking programs that continuously monitor our online activities in accessing
the Internet. Some of these are useful to Webmasters who want to determine the kind of visitors who are surfing their websites, but
some tracking programs intrude our privacy and preference. Here are the online spying tools - cookies, spyware, spam, and web
bugs.
 Cookies
So what is a cookie? We heard this one many times over. Like for example, when you study Java programming language,
programming a cookie is always a prerequisite to learn Java programming. A cookie is a small code that a Web server asks your Web
browser such as Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox to place on your computer. The cookie contains pertinent information that
identifies your workstation’s IP address, your login name, e-mail address, and some information about your visit to the Web site. For
example, the cookie might list the last time you visited the Web site, which Web page you downloaded, and how long you were at
the web site before leaving from it.
 Spyware
The spyware is also known as adware. Like the cookie, the spyware can track a computer user’s activities and report them to
someone else. The spyware collects and record secretly your e-mail address, web usage, individual keystrokes, and even your
personal information. The spyware can land on your laptop from many sources: e-mail messages, web pages, and pop-up adds
(advertisements).
 Spam
If we receive an e-mail or e-mails that is coming from different sources or people that we do not know, then probably, we
received a junk mail called spam. Usually, a spam offers products or services that usually we don’t need or want. Almost all spam
emails are classified as commercial advertisements. Spam is completely defined as unsolicited commercial e-mail.

Essential cyber security measures

 Use strong passwords

Strong passwords are vital to good online security. Make your password difficult to guess by:
 using a combination of capital and lower-case letters, numbers and symbols
 making it between eight and 12 characters long
 avoiding the use of personal data
 changing it regularly
 never using it for multiple accounts
 using two-factor authentication

 Control access to data and systems

Make sure that individuals can only access data and services for which they are authorized. For example, you can:
 control physical access to premises and computers network
 restrict access to unauthorized users
 limit access to data or services through application controls
 restrict what can be copied from the system and saved to storage devices
 limit sending and receiving of certain types of email attachments
  Put up a firewall
Firewalls are effectively gatekeepers between your computer and the internet. They act as a barrier to prevent the spread
of cyber threats such as viruses and malware. It's important to set up firewall devices properly and check them regularly to
ensure their software/firmware is up to date, or they may not be fully effective.

 Use security software

You should use security software, such as anti-spyware, anti-malware and anti-virus programs, to help detect and remove
malicious code if it slips into your network.

 Update programs and systems regularly

Updates contain vital security upgrades that help protect against known bugs and vulnerabilities. Make sure that you keep
your software and devices up-to-date to avoid falling prey to criminals. Keeping your software and operating system up to
date ensures that you benefit from the latest security patches to protect your computer.

 Monitor for intrusion

You can use intrusion detectors to monitor systems and unusual network activity. If a detection system suspects a potential
security breach, it can generate an alarm, such as an email alert, based on the type of activity it has identified.

 Raise awareness
Your employees have a responsibility to help keep your business secure. Make sure that they understand their role and any
relevant policies and procedures, and provide them with regular cyber security awareness and training.

 Never open attachments in spam emails

A classic way that computers get infected by malware attacks and other forms of cybercrime is via email attachments in
spam emails. Never open an attachment from a sender you do not know.

 Do not give out personal information unless secure

Never give out personal data over the phone or via email unless you are completely sure the line or email is secure. Make
certain that you are speaking to the person you think you are.

 Contact companies directly about suspicious requests

If you are asked for personal information or data from a company who has called you, hang up. Call them back using the
number on their official website to ensure you are speaking to them and not a cybercriminal. Ideally, use a different phone
because cybercriminals can hold the line open. When you think you’ve re-dialed, they can pretend to be from the bank or
other organization that you think you are speaking to.

 Be mindful of which website URLs you visit

Keep an eye on the URLs you are clicking on. Do they look legitimate? Avoid clicking on links with unfamiliar or URLs that
look like spam. If your internet security product includes functionality to secure online transactions, ensure it is enabled
before carrying out financial transactions online
 Keep an eye on your bank statements
Spotting that you have become a victim of cybercrime quickly is important. Keep an eye on your bank statements and query
any unfamiliar transactions with the bank. The bank can investigate whether they are fraudulent.

Prevention from Getting Hacked

There are several key steps and best practices that organizations and users can follow to ensure they limit their chances of getting
hacked.

 Software Update
Hackers are constantly on the lookout for vulnerabilities or holes in security that have not been seen or patched. Therefore,
updating software and operating systems are both crucial to preventing users and organizations from getting hacked. They must
enable automatic updates and ensure the latest software version is always installed on all of their devices and programs.
  Use Unique Passwords for Different Accounts
Weak passwords or account credentials and poor password practices are the most common cause of data breaches and
cyberattacks. It is vital to not only use strong passwords that are difficult for hackers to crack but also to never use the same
password for different accounts. Using unique passwords is crucial to limiting hackers’ effectiveness.

 HTTPS Encryption
Spoofed websites are another common vehicle for data theft, when hackers create a scam website that looks legitimate but will
actually steal the credentials that users enter. It is important to look for the Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) prefix at the
start of a web address. For example: https://www.fortinet.com.

 Avoid Clicking on Ads or Strange Links

Advertisements like pop-up ads are also widely used by hackers. When clicked, they lead the user to inadvertently download
malware or spyware onto their device. Links should be treated carefully, and strange links within email messages or on social media,
in particular, should never be clicked. These can be used by hackers to install malware on a device or lead users to spoofed websites

 Change the Default Username and Password on Your Router and Smart Devices
Routers and smart devices come with default usernames and passwords. However, as providers ship millions of devices, there is a
risk that the credentials are not unique, which heightens the chances of hackers breaking into them. It is best practice to set a
unique username and password combination for these types of devices.

 Download from First-party Sources

Only download applications or software from trusted organizations and first-party sources. Downloading content from unknown
sources means users do not fully know what they are accessing, and the software can be infected with malware, viruses, or Trojans.

 Install Antivirus Software

Having antivirus software installed on devices is crucial to spotting potential malicious files, activity, and bad actors. A trusted
antivirus tool protects users and organizations from the latest malware, spyware, and viruses and uses advanced detection engines
to block and prevent new and evolving threats.

 Use a VPN
Using a virtual private network (VPN) allows users to browse the internet securely. It hides their location and prevents hackers from
intercepting their data or browsing activity.

 Do Not Login as an Admin by Default

"Admin" is one of the most commonly used usernames by IT departments, and hackers use this information to target organizations.
Signing in with this name makes you a hacking target, so do not log in with it by default.

 Use a Password Manager

Creating strong, unique passwords is a security best practice, but remembering them is difficult. Password managers are useful tools
for helping people use strong, hard-to-crack passwords without having to worry about remembering them.

 Use Two-factor Authentication

Two-factor authentication (2FA) removes people's reliance on passwords and provides more certainty that the person accessing an
account is who they say they are. When a user logs in to their account, they are then prompted to provide another piece of identity
evidence, such as their fingerprint or a code sent to their device.

 Brush Up on Anti-phishing Techniques

Users must understand the techniques that hackers deploy to target them. This is especially the case with ant phishing and
ransomware, which help users know the telltale signs of a phishing email or a ransomware attack or ransomware settlements.