CHAPTER

Trigonometric Functions
6
The term trigonometry, from the Greek trigonon (triangle) and metron (to mea-
sure), is a branch of mathematics that studies triangles. The study of triangles
dates back to the early ages of Egypt and Babylon. The Egyptians used an
early form of trigonometry in the construction of the pyramids in the 2nd mil-
lennium BC. On the other hand, early Babylonians used angular distances to
observe and measure celestial body movements including the rising and setting
of the stars, the movements of the planets, solar and lunar eclipse, etc. These
observations were then used to keep and record time.

Some ancient applications of trigonometry

In the 13th century, the Germans introduced modern trigonometry by defin-

ing trigonometric functions as ratios, which is now popularized as SOH-CAH-
TOA. The sine and cosine functions are the two most prominent trigonometric
functions, and the other four trigonometric functions maybe derived from these
two. At present, trigonometry is used in various fields including biology, chem-
istry, physics, economics, acoustics, etc.

In this chapter, we develop the six trigonometric functions and their prop-
erties and graphs. We also discuss various trigonometric identities.

References:
Retrieved from http://www.clarku.edu/⇠djoyce/trig/ on 27 February 2010
Retrieved from http://baqaqi.chi.il.us/buecher/mathematics/trigonometry/index.html on 27
February 2010
232

6.1 Angles and their Measurement

An angle ✓ is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin
of a cartesian coordinate system and the initial side lies on the positive side of
the x-axis. For example, angles ↵, and shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2 are all
angles in standard position. \↵ and \ have the same terminal side and are
both obtained by a counterclockwise rotation while is obtained by a clockwise
rotation.

Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2

Suppose ✓ is an angle in standard position obtained by a counterclockwise

rotation. To measure ✓, we draw the unit circle and wrap around it a number
scale that starts at (1, 0) in the counterclockwise direction as shown in Figure
6.3. We define the radian measure of \✓ to be the number t on the number
scale cut by the terminal side.

Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4

If on the other hand, ✓ is obtained by a clockwise rotation, we extend the

 233

number scale in the opposite direction, giving negative numbers (as in Figure
6.4). As in the first case, we define the radian measure of \✓ to be the number
t where the terminal side of the angle intersects the number scale.
In either case, we write mR (✓) = t and we also say that \✓ measures t
radians.

Illustration 6.1.1. In Figures 6.5 and 6.6, \↵ has radian measure 3 while \
has radian measure 2, and we write mR (↵) = 3 and mR ( ) = 2.

Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6

Illustration 6.1.2. Since the unit circle has circumference 2⇡, \↵ in Figure
6.7 which covers half the circumference, has measure ⇡ radians. Similarly,
mR ( ) = ⇡2 .

Figure 6.7

Angles are also measured using degrees, minutes, and seconds. To relate
these with radians, we assume that an angle that covers one whole circle has
234

measure 360 degrees, written 360 . Using radians, we know that the same angle
must measure 2⇡ radians. Thus

2⇡ radians = 360 ,

and so
180
1 radian = degrees, and
⇡
⇡
1 degree = 1 = radians.
180
We define minutes and seconds as follows:
1
1 minute, written 1’, = of 1 , while
60
1
1 second, written 1”, = of 1’.
60
However, intead of using minutes and seconds, we shall usually convert them
to fractions of 1 degree. For instance, if the measure of an angle is 27 130 3000 ,
then we’ll write it as
✓ ◆
30
27 13’30” = 27 13 + ’
60
= 27 13.5’
✓ ◆
13.5
= 27 +
60
= 27.225 .

Example 6.1.3. (a) What is the radian measure of a 60 angle?

(b) What is the degree measure of an angle that has measure 59 ⇡ radians?

Solution.
⇡ ⇡
(a) 60 = 60 ⇥ radians = radians.
180 3
5⇡ 5⇡ 180
(b) radians = ⇥ degrees = 100 .
9 9 ⇡

An angle in standard position is said to be on the quadrant where the ter-

minal side lies. If the terminal side lies on the x-axis or y-axis, then the angle is
called quadrantal. Therefore if ↵, and are angles with measures 2 radians,
270 , and 76 ⇡ radians, respectively, then is quadrantal while both ↵ and
are on the second quadrant.
 235

Two angles are said to be coterminal if they have the same terminal side.
Thus, if ✓ is an angle with mR (✓) = ⇡6 , then it is coterminal with the angle that
has radian measure
⇡
+ 2n⇡,
6
for any integer n. For example, 13 25
6 ⇡, 6 ⇡ or 11
6 ⇡.

Exercises 6.1
In Exercises 1-8, find the radian measure of the smallest positive angle that is
coterminal with the angle having the given radian measure.

1. 2
3⇡ 3. 11
2 ⇡ 5. 59
6 ⇡ 7. 8.57

2. 23
6 ⇡ 4. 9
4⇡ 6. 97
4 ⇡ 8. 12

In Exercises 9-16, convert the degree measurements to the equivalent radian

measurement.

9. 60 11. 240 13. 15 15. 70

10. 150 12. 135 14. 445 16. 105

In Exercises 17-24, convert the radian measurements to the equivalent degree

measurement.

17. 2
3⇡ 19. 7
4⇡ 21. 1
3 23. 5.28

18. 7
6⇡ 20. 7⇡ 22. 3 24. 0.45

25. Convert the following angle measurements to a form using decimals and
then find the equivalent radian measurement for each.

(a) 45 160 48” (b) 131 520 12”

26. Let one day (denoted by 3 ) be the measurement of the central angle of a
circle that intercepts on the circle an arc whose length is 365
1
of the circum-
ference of the circle. Convert the following angle measurements to their
equivalent in days:

(a) 23 340 57” (b) 33⇡ rad

236

6.2 Trigonometric Functions of

General Angles
Let ✓ be an angle in standard position,
p P (x, y) any point on the terminal side
of ✓ other than the origin and r = x2 + y 2 , the distance from P to the origin.
(See Figure 6.8.) Then the functions sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and
cotangent are defined as follows:
y
sin ✓ =
r
x
cos ✓ =
r
y
tan ✓ = if x 6= 0
x
r
csc ✓ = if y 6= 0
y
r
sec ✓ = if x 6= 0
x
x
cot ✓ = if y 6= 0.
y

Figure 6.8 Figure 6.9

The six functions defined above are called the six trigonometric functions.

If a point other than P (x, y) , say P 0 (x0 , y 0 ), is chosen on the terminal side
of the angle ✓, as in Figure 6.9, then using a property of similar triangles, we
have
y y0 x x0 y y0
= 0, = 0 , and = 0.
r r r r x x
Therefore, the values of the six trigonometric functions depend only on the an-
gle ✓ and not on the choice of the point P.
 237

Example 6.2.1. Find the values of the trigonometric functions of \✓ in standard

position if P ( 3, 4) is on the terminal side of ✓.
q
Solution. x = 3 and y = 4 so r = ( 3)2 + (4)2 = 5. From the definition
above, we obtain
4 5
sin ✓ = , csc ✓ = ,
5 4
3 5
cos ✓ = , sec ✓ = ,
5 3
4 3
tan ✓ = , cot ✓ = .
3 4

From the definitions, we can form the following table of signs of the trigono-
metric functions of angles in the different quadrants:
Quadrant of ✓ sin ✓ cos ✓ tan ✓ csc ✓ sec ✓ cot ✓
first + + + + + +
second + +
third + +
fourth + +

Example 6.2.2. Suppose tan ✓ = 12 5

and ✓ is on the third quadrant. Find the
values of the other five trigonometric function values of ✓.
Solution. Since ✓ is on the third quadrant, any point P (x, y) on its terminal
side except the origin should have x < 0 and y < 0. Since tan ✓ = xy = 12
5
, we can
then choose the point P with x = 12 and y = 5. Thus, r = 13. We then obtain
5 13
sin ✓ = , csc ✓ = ,
13 5
12 12
cos ✓ = , cot ✓ = .
13 5
13
sec ✓ = ,
12

Example 6.2.3. If sec ✓ = 3 and sin ✓ < 0, find the other five trigonometric
function values of ✓.
Solution. Since sin ✓ < 0 and sec ✓ > 0, ✓ must be in the fourth quadrant.
sec ✓ = 3 = 31 = xr so we can choose P (x, y) on the terminal side of ✓ so that
r = 3, x = 1 and y < 0. Now,
p
x2 + y 2 = r = 3 ) 1 + y 2 = 9
) y2 = 8 p
) y = 2 2.
238

Therefore, p
2 2 3
sin ✓ = , csc ✓ = p ,
3 2 2
p
1 1 2
cos ✓ = , cot ✓ = p or .
3 2 2 4
p
tan ✓ = 2 2,

We observe from the definition that the following equations hold whenever
the expressions on both sides are defined:

1 sin ✓
(a) csc ✓ = (d) tan ✓ =
sin ✓ cos ✓
1 cos ✓
(b) sec ✓ = (e) cot ✓ = (6.5)
cos ✓ sin ✓
1
(c) cot ✓ =
tan ✓

For example, (a) and (e) can be shown as follows:

⇣x⌘
r 1 1 x cos ✓
csc ✓ = = ⇣y ⌘ = , and cot ✓ = = ⇣ yr ⌘ = .
y sin ✓ y sin ✓
r r
In general, an equation that is always true whenever the expressions on
both sides are defined, is called an identity. Equations (a) to (c) are called
reciprocal identities while (d) and (e) are called quotient identities.
If ✓ is an angle in standard position, P (x, y) any point on the terminal
p side of
✓ except the origin, and r the distance of P from the origin, then r = y 2 + x2 .
Squaring both sides of the last equation, we get

y 2 + x2 = r2 ,

and so
y 2 x2 ⇣ y ⌘2 ⇣ x ⌘2
+ = 1 or + = 1.
r2 r2 r r
Therefore, we have just shown the following identity

sin2 ✓ + cos2 ✓ = 1. (6.6)

Equation (6.6) is called the fundamental Pythagorean identity. Divid-

ing the equation by either cos2 ✓ or sin2 ✓ results in two other Pythagorean iden-
tities:

tan2 ✓ + 1 = sec2 ✓, and (6.7)

1 + cot ✓ = csc ✓.
2 2
(6.8)
 239

The identities above provide an alternative in solving problems similar to

what we have discussed earlier. For example, Example 6.2.2 can be solved as
follows: Since tan ✓ = 12
5
,
✓ ◆2
5
+ 1 = sec2 ✓
12
by the Pythagorean identity (6.7). And since ✓ is on the third quadrant, sec ✓ <
0:
52 + 122 169 13
sec2 ✓ = = ) sec ✓ = .
122 144 12
Using the reciprocal identity (6.5b) and the quotient identity (6.5d), we obtain
the following
12 5
cos ✓ = and sin ✓ = tan ✓ · cos ✓ = .
13 13
The other trigonometric function values can now be obtained too.
We end the section with a theorem that follows immediately from the defi-
nition given at the start of the section.

Theorem 6.2.4. Let ✓ be an angle in standard position and P (x, y) the point on
the terminal side of ✓ that lies on the unit circle. Then

sin ✓ = y,
cos ✓ = x,
y
tan ✓ = if x 6= 0,
x
1
csc ✓ = if y 6= 0,
y
1
sec ✓ = if x 6= 0,
x
x
cot ✓ = if y 6= 0.
y

To simplify the notations, we shall use P (✓) for the point P (x, y) on the
unit circle that lies on the terminal side of \✓. Therefore, P (✓) has coordinates
(cos ✓, sin ✓) .
240

Exercises 6.2
In Exercises 1-9, given that ✓ is an angle in standard position, and the terminal
side of ✓ contains P , find (a) sin ✓, (b) cos ✓, (c) tan ✓, (d) cot ✓, (e) sec ✓, and (f) csc ✓.

1. P (5, 12) 4. P ( 12, 5) 7. P (2, 0)

2. P (8, 15) 5. P (12, 6) 8. P ( 2, 2)

3 3

p
3. P ( 3, 4) 6. P (0, 5) 9. P ( 2 5, 5)

In Exercises 10-22, find the exact values of the remaining trigonometric func-
tions of ✓.

10. cos ✓ = 15
17 and sin ✓ > 0

11. sin ✓ = 12
13 and tan ✓ < 0

12. tan ✓ = 3
4 and csc ✓ < 0

13. cos ✓ = 7 and cot ✓ > 0

5

p
14. cot ✓ = 2 and csc ✓ < 0
5

15. sec ✓ = 5
4 and tan ✓ < 0

16. cot ✓ = 3 and cos ✓ < 0

4

p p
17. sin ✓ = 5 and cos ✓ =
2 5
5
5

p
18. sin ✓ = 1
3 and cos ✓ = 2 2
3

19. cos ✓ = 5
13 and ✓ is in Quadrant IV

20. csc ✓ = 4 and ✓ is in Quadrant III

21. sec ✓ = 5
4 and 32 ⇡ < ✓ < 2⇡

22. csc ✓ = 2
3 and ⇡ < ✓ < 32 ⇡

2rs
23. Given that cot ✓ = , where r, s > 0 and ⇡
2 < ✓ < ⇡, find sin ✓.
s2 r2
2p
24. Given that tan ✓ = , where 0 < p < 1 and 0 < ✓ < ⇡2 , find cos ✓.
1 p2
25. The point P ( 25 , y) with y < 0 is on the unit circle having center at the
origin. If ✓ is an angle in standard position whose terminal side intersects
the unit circle at P , find tan ✓.
 241

6.3 Trigonometric Functions of

Special Angles
If an angle ✓ in standard position has measure 45 , or equivalently ⇡
4 radi-
ans, then we shall also use the notation
⇡
sin 45 and sin
4
for sin ✓, and similarly for the other five trigonometric functions. Note, in par-
ticular, that if the measure is in degrees, we include the degree symbol , but if
it is in radians, the unit is omitted.
We shall also write ↵ = 30 or ↵ = ⇡6 radians to mean that the angle ↵ has
measure 30 or ⇡6 radians, respectively.
In this section, we determine the values of the trigonometric functions of
special angles. We shall only be using the radian measure in the discussion,
but because of the formula that converts radians to degrees, we can also obtain
the values in degrees.
In deriving the values of the trignometric functions at special angles, we use
Theorem 6.2.4. We assume ✓ is an angle in standard position, and we use P (✓)
for the point on the terminal side of ✓ that lies on the unit circle.
For angles that have radian measure that is a multiple of 2,
⇡
we obtain the
following table:

✓ in radians P (✓) sin ✓ cos ✓ tan ✓ csc ✓ sec ✓ cot ✓

0 (1, 0) 0 1 0 undefined 1 undefined
⇡/2 (0, 1) 1 0 undefined 1 undefined 0
⇡ ( 1, 0) 0 1 0 undefined 1 undefined
3⇡/2 (0, 1) 1 0 undefined 1 undefined 0

If ✓ has radian measure 2⇡ or 32 ⇡ or any other multiple of ⇡2 , then the point

P (✓) will equal one of those above, so the trigonometric function values can
be obtained using the angles above. For example, since P 2 ⇡ = P 2 and
3 ⇡

P (4⇡) = P (0) , we have

✓ ◆ ⇣⇡ ⌘
3⇡
sin = sin = 1 and tan (4⇡) = tan (0) = 0.
2 2

We now obtain the trigonometric function values of angles that have radian
measure an odd multiple of ⇡4 . First, if ✓ = ⇡4 radians and P ⇡4 = (x, y), then we
can construct a 45 -45 -90 triangle whose legs have lengths x and y, as shown
in Figures 6.10 and 6.11.
242

Figure 6.10 Figure 6.11

p
Thus, x = y and x2 + y 2 = 1. Therefore, 2x2 = 1, so x = y = p12 or 22 . Thus,
⇣ ⌘
P ⇡4 = p12 , p12 . The trigonometric function values at ⇡4 can now be obtained.
For any odd integer multiple of ⇡4 , for example, 34 ⇡ or 11
4 ⇡, a congruent 45 -
45 -90 triangle is obtained, so the trigonometric function values can be found
in a similar way. For example,
⇣ if ✓ = 4⌘⇡ radians, then the corresponding point
3

P 3
4⇡ will have coordinates p1 , p1
2 2
. See Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12 Figure 6.13

All the odd integer multiples of ⇡

4 between 0 and 2⇡ are considered in the
table below.

✓ in radians P (✓)p
p sinp
✓ cosp
✓ tan ✓ csc
p✓ sec
p✓ cot ✓
⇡/4 1/ p2, 1/ p2 1/p2 1/p2 1 p2 p2 1
3⇡/4 1/p 2, 1/ p2 1/p2 1/p2 1 p2 p2 1
5⇡/4 1/p 2, 1/p 2 1/p2 1/p2 1 p2 p 2 1
7⇡/4 1/ 2, 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1 2 2 1

Any angle with measure that is an odd multiple of ⇡4 radians will have the
same terminal side as one of the four angles above so the trigonometric function
values at this angle will be identical. For example, the trigonometric function
 243

values at ✓ = 54 ⇡ radians are identical to the function values at ✓ = 34 ⇡ radians.

See Figure 6.13.
Now, suppose ✓ = ⇡6 radians and P ⇡6 = (x, y). We now obtain a 30 -60 -90
triangle, as shown in Figures 6.15 and 6.14.

Figure 6.14 Figure 6.15

We recall from high school geometry that in such a triangle, the side oppo-
site the 30 -angle has length that is 12 that of the hypotenuse, while the side
p
opposite the 60 -angle has length that is 2 times thephypotenuse. Since the
3

hypotenuse has length⇣1, it follows

⌘ that y = 12 and x = 23 . Therefore, the point
p
P ⇡
6 has coordinates 3 1
2 ,2 .

On the other hand, if ✓ = ⇡3 radians then we obtain another 30 -60 -90

triangle, as presented in⇣ Figures
⌘ 6.17 and 6.16. If P 3 = (x, y), then x = 2
⇡ 1
p p
and y = 3
2 , so P ⇡
3 = 1
,
2 2
3
.

Figure 6.16 Figure 6.17

We have below the values of the sin, cos and tan functions at the multiples
of ⇡3 and ⇡6 between 0 and 2⇡ that have not appeared above. The values of the
other three trigonometric functions can be obtained by getting the reciprocal of
244

the corresponding functions.

✓ in radians pP (✓) sin ✓ cos
p ✓ tanp✓
⇡/6 3/2,
p1/2 p1/2 3/2 1/p3
⇡/3 1/2, p3/2 p3/2 1/2 p3
2⇡/3 1/2,
p 3/2 3/2 p1/2 p3
5⇡/6 p 3/2, 1/2 1/2 p3/2 1/p3
7⇡/6 3/2, p1/2 p1/2 3/2 1/p3
4⇡/3 1/2, p 3/2 p3/2 1/2 p3
5⇡/3 1/2,
p 3/2 3/2 p1/2 p3
11⇡/6 3/2, 1/2 1/2 3/2 1/ 3
It is not necessary to memorize the values in the tables shown above. It
is enough to determine the location of an appropriate special right triangle, as
illustrated in the next examples.

Example 6.3.1. Find the trigonometric function values of the angle with radian
measure 11
4 ⇡.

Solution. First, we locate the angle 11 4 ⇡ radians in standard position. We

note that 11
4 ⇡ = 2⇡ + 3
4 ⇡ so the angle is in the third quadrant and a 45 -45 -90
triangle can be formed as in Figures 6.18 and 6.19. Thus the point P 11
4 ⇡
has coordinates x = p12 , y = p12 . Therefore
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
11⇡ 1 11⇡ p
sin = p , csc = 2,
4 2 4
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
11⇡ 1 11⇡ p
cos = p , sec = 2,
✓ 4 ◆ 2 ✓ 4 ◆
11⇡ 11⇡
tan = 1, cot = 1.
4 4

Figure 6.18 Figure 6.19

 245

Example 6.3.2. Find the trigonometric function values of ✓ = 53 ⇡ radians.

Solution. We locate the angle 53 ⇡ radians in standard position as in Figure

6.20. We can then form a 30 -60 -90 triangle with hypotenuse 1. Using the
properties of such a triangle, the side opposite 30 has length 12 while that op-
p p
posite 60 has length 2 .
3
Therefore, if (x, y) = P 5
3⇡ , then x = 1
2 and y = 2 .
3

Thus, p
5⇡ 3 5⇡ 2
sin = , csc = p ,
3 2 3 3
5⇡ 1 5⇡
cos = , sec = 2,
3 2 3
5⇡ p 5⇡ 1
tan = 3, cot = p .
3 3 3

Figure 6.20

Exercises 6.3
In Exercises 1-20, find the exact values of (a) sin ✓, (b) cos ✓, (c) tan ✓, (d) cot ✓,
(e) sec ✓, and (f) csc ✓ for each angle ✓ given below.

1. 135 6. 5
4⇡

2. 210
7. 120
3. 5
3⇡
8. 210
4. 11
6 ⇡

5. 1
6⇡ 9. 480
246

10. 1140 16. 4⇡

11. 17
6 ⇡ 17. 7
2⇡
12. 3
2⇡
18. 635
3 ⇡
13. 90
14. 420 19. 21180

15. 3⇡ 20. 511

6 ⇡

In Exercises 21-26, consider a right triangle with angle ✓, hypotenuse h and

legs a and b, where a is opposite angle ✓.
21. Find a and b given that ✓ = 45 and h = 4.
22. Find a and b given that ✓ = 60 and h = 8.
23. Find a and b given that ✓ = 30 and h = 10.
24. Find h and b given that ✓ = 45 and a = 7.
25. Find h and b given that ✓ = 60 and a = 3.
26. Find h and b given that ✓ = 30 and a = 4.
In Exercises 27-38, give the exact value without using a calculator.
27. 3 sin 53 ⇡ 4 cos 52 ⇡
28. sin 2⇡
3 cot 6
⇡

cos 76 ⇡
29.
1 + sin 34 ⇡

30. tan( 5
6 ⇡) cot 72 ⇡
cot 315 tan 225
31.
cot 45
32. cos 45 + sin 135 + tan 225 + csc 315
sec2 300 + tan2 150
33.
cos2 135 cot2 240
34. 2 sin 330 + csc 210
35. tan 7
4⇡ cos 135
36. 4 csc 5
6⇡ 3 tan( 135 )
37. csc ⇡
4 + csc 3
4⇡ + csc( 225 ) + csc(315 )
38. tan ⇡
3 + cot 210
 247

6.4 Trigonometric Functions of Real

Numbers
In this section, we define the trigonometric functions on real numbers, then
derive some of their properties.
First, suppose t is an arbitrary real number. If ✓ is an angle in standard
position with measure t radians, then
sin t = sin ✓ csc t = csc ✓
cos t = cos ✓ sec t = sec ✓
tan t = tan ✓ cot t = cot ✓

if the corresponding expression on the right is defined.

To illustrate, the cosine of the real number 2, written cos 2, is the value of
the cosine of the angle ✓ that has measure 2 radians. Similarly, tan ⇡4 , the
tangent of the number ⇡4 , equals tan ⇡4 , the tangent of the angle that has
radian measure ⇡4 . Thus, tan ⇡4 now has two interpretations– the tangent of
the number ⇡4 ⇡ 0.7854 and the tangent of the angle with measure ⇡4 radians or
45 , but both give the same value.
The reciprocal identities and the Pythagorean identities of section 3.2 will
then hold if ✓ is an arbitrary real number. That is, if t 2 R, then
1
csc t = if sin t 6= 0,
sin t
1
sec t = if cos t 6= 0,
cos t
1
cot t = if tan t 6= 0,
tan t
sin t
tan t = if cos t 6= 0,
cos t
cos t
cot t = if sin t 6= 0,
sin t
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1,
tan2 t + 1 = sec2 t,
1 + cot2 t = csc2 t.

Example 6.4.1. Evaluate tan 34 ⇡ and cos 7

6⇡ .
Solution. As explained above, we just have to take the real numbers 34 ⇡
and 76 ⇡ as the radian measure of the appropriate angles. If P 34 ⇡ = (x, y)
(Figure 6.21), then we get
3⇡ y
tan = = 1.
4 x
248
p
For cos 6 ⇡ , refer to Figure 6.22. Let P
7 7
6⇡ = (x, y) . Then x = 2 .
3

Therefore, ✓ ◆ p
7⇡ 3
cos = .
6 2

Figure 6.21 Figure 6.22

We now derive some additional properties that are helpful in computations

involving trigonometric functions.

Theorem 6.4.2. For any t 2 R,

sin ( t) = sin t (6.9)

cos ( t) = cos t (6.10)
tan ( t) = tan t, if tan t is defined. (6.11)

Proof. Equations (6.9), (6.10) and (6.11) follow from the fact that if an angle
in standard position has radian measure t and P (t) = (cos t, sin t) = (x, y), then
the point P ( t) = (cos ( t) , sin ( t)) will have coordinates (x, y) . Refer to
Figure 6.23 (t > 0) and Figure 6.24 (t < 0). Equation (6.11) can also be shown
from the other two equations as follows:

sin ( t) sin t
tan ( t) = = = tan t.
cos ( t) cos t
 249

Figure 6.23 Figure 6.24

Theorem 6.4.3. If t 2 R and k 2 Z then

sin (t + 2k⇡) = sin t

cos (t + 2k⇡) = cos t
tan (t + k⇡) = tan t, if tan t is defined.

Proof. The first two equations follow from the fact that an angle in standard
position with measure t + 2k⇡ radians will have the same terminal side as an
angle with measure t radians. Therefore, P (t + 2k⇡) = P (t) . The third will
follow if we can show the following

tan (t + ⇡) = tan t,

for any t 2 R for which tan t is defined.

Figure 6.25 Figure 6.26

To prove this, let P (t) = (cos t, sin t) = (x, y) . Then P (t + ⇡) will lie on the
same line as P (t) and the origin and so P (t + ⇡) = (cos (t + ⇡) , sin (t + ⇡)) =
250

( x, y) . (Refer to Figures 6.25 and 6.26.) Thus,

sin (t + ⇡) = sin t
cos (t + ⇡) = cos t,

and so
sin (t + ⇡)
tan (t + ⇡) =
cos (t + ⇡)
sin t
= = tan t.
cos t

Theorem 6.4.3 shows that the six trigonometric functions are “periodic”.

Definition 6.4.4. A function f is said to be periodic if there exists a positive

real number p such that for any x in the domain of f,

f (x + p) = f (x) .

The smallest such p is called the period of f.

It therefore follows that the four functions sin, cos, sec and csc have period 2⇡
while tan and cot have period ⇡. The periodicity of the trigonometric functions
tells us that their graphs repeat in a regular manner and the period tells us
how regular the graphs repeat. We shall see this property of the graphs in the
next two sections. The graph of a periodic function on an interval of length
equal to the period is called a complete cycle, or simply a cycle, of the graph.

Exercises 6.4
In Exercises 1-24, use the values of sin t, cos t, sec t, csc t when 0  t < 2⇡ and
the values of tan t, cot t when 0  t < ⇡ to find the following.

1. sin 15⇡ 7. csc 17

6 ⇡

2. sec 2⇡ 8. sec 10
3 ⇡

3. csc( 7⇡) 9. cos 17

2 ⇡

4. cos( 8⇡) 10. csc 15

2 ⇡

5. cos 13
6 ⇡ 11. cos 15
4 ⇡

6. sin 11
4 ⇡ 12. csc 31
6 ⇡
 251

13. sin( 19
3 ⇡) 19. tan( 73 ⇡)

14. csc( 28
3 ⇡) 20. tan( 35
6 ⇡)

15. cos( 17
2 ⇡) 21. cot( 19
4 ⇡)

16. tan 13
6 ⇡ 22. tan( 11
4 ⇡)

17. cot 53 ⇡ 23. cot( 13

2 ⇡)

18. cot( 17
6 ⇡) 24. tan( 13
6 ⇡)

In Exercises 25-30, verify the following identities:

cot t
25. cos( t) =
csc( t)
tan t
26. sin( t) =
sec( t)
sec( t)
27. tan( t) =
csc t
cot( t)
28. csc( t) =
cos t
1 tan( t) sin( t)
29. =1
cos( t) cos t cos t
cos2 ( t) 1
30. + sin( t) + =0
sin( t) sin t
31. If f (x) = sin x and f (a) = 13 , find the exact value of (a) f ( a), (b) f (a) +
f (a + 2⇡) + f (a + 4⇡).
32. If f (x) = cos x and f (a) = 14 , find the exact value of (a) f ( a), (b) f (a) +
f (a + 2⇡) + f (a 2⇡).
33. If f (x) = tan x and f (a) = 2, find the exact value of (a) f ( a), (b) f (a) +
f (a + ⇡) + f (a + 2⇡).
34. If f (x) = csc x and f (a) = 2, find the exact value of (a) f ( a), (b) f (a) +
f (a + 2⇡) + f (a + 4⇡).
35. Find the exact value of the expression cot ✓ + cot(✓ ⇡) + cot(✓ 2⇡) if
cot ✓ = 2.
36. Find the exact value of the expression tan(✓ + ⇡) + tan(✓ ⇡) + tan(✓ +
2⇡) + tan(✓ 2⇡) if tan ✓ = 1.
37. Find the exact value of cos 1 + cos 2 + cos 3 + ... + cos 358 + cos 359 .
38. Find the exact value of sin 1 + sin 2 + sin 3 + ... + sin 358 + sin 359 .
270

6.8 Identities
We recall that an identity is an equation that is true whenever both sides
are defined. Identities are important because they allow substitution of an
expression with one that may be simpler or more appropriate. We shall see
how this is done in solving equations in the next chapter. In calculus, identities
will prove very useful as the way an expression is represented could make a big
difference in successfully performing various operations.

We begin by enumerating some identities that we have already shown so

far. Note that all the identities hold whether we take the values of the variable
to be real numbers or measures of angles.

1
csc x =
sin x
1
The Reciprocal Identities sec x =
cos x
1
cot x =
tan x
sin x
tan x =
cos x
The Quotient Identities
cos x
cot x =
sin x
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
The Pythagorean Identities tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x

Example 6.8.1. Write tan2 x sec x in terms of cos x only.

Solution. By the quotient identity for tan x and the reciprocal identity for
sec x, we have
sin2 x 1 sin2 x
tan2 x sec x = = .
cos2 x cos x cos3 x
Applying the first Pythagorean identity on the numerator of the last expression,
we obtain the following

1 cos2 x
tan2 x sec x = .
cos3 x
 271
cos2 ✓ 1
Example 6.8.2. Write in terms of tan ✓ only: .
cos ✓ (cos ✓ sin ✓)

Solution. First, we divide the numerator and denominator by cos2 ✓, then

apply some of the identities above:
1
cos2 ✓ 1 1
= ✓ cos2 ✓ ◆
cos ✓ (cos ✓ sin ✓) sin ✓
1· 1
cos ✓
1 sec ✓
2
=
1 tan ✓
1 tan2 ✓ + 1
=
1 tan ✓
tan2 ✓
= .
1 tan ✓

There is no general procedure in proving trigonometric identities. However,

there are different techniques that may be useful depending on the identity. We
illustrate these in the next examples.

Illustration 6.8.3. To prove the identity

tan x + cot x = sec x csc x,

we may begin with the expression on the left side of the equation and obtain
the one on the right by applying known identities. One possible way to do this
is as follows:
sin x cos x
tan x + cot x = +
cos x sin x
sin2 x + cos2 x
=
cos x sin x
1
=
cos x sin x
1 1
=
cos x sin x
= sec x csc x.

From the sequence of equations, we have shown that tan x + cot x = sec x csc x.

In general, to prove an identity, one may start from one side of the equation
and obtain the expression on the other side by using known identities. Usually,
it is best to start from the side with the more complicated expression.
272

Example 6.8.4. Prove

1 sin ✓ csc ✓ 1
=
1 + sin ✓ csc ✓ + 1
Solution. We start from the expression on the right side and obtain the
expression on the left:

1
csc ✓ 1 1
= sin ✓
csc ✓ + 1 1
+1
sin ✓
1 sin ✓
= .
1 + sin ✓

Example 6.8.5. Show that

1 + sin x cos x
+ = 2 sec x.
cos x 1 + sin x

Solution. We start from the left side and derive the expression on the right:

1 + sin x cos x (1 + sin x)2 + cos2 x

+ =
cos x 1 + sin x cos x (1 + sin x)
1 + 2 sin x + sin2 x + cos2 x
=
cos x (1 + sin x)
2 + 2 sin x
= .
cos x (1 + sin x)

Factoring out 2 in the numerator and cancelling (1 + sin x), we have

1 + sin x cos x 2
+ = = 2 sec x.
cos x 1 + sin x cos x

Note that in the process of simplifying expressions, it may be necessary to

perform algebraic operations like adding fractions, factoring, etc.
A very useful principle that can be applied in simplifying an expression is
to write everything in terms of sin and cos only, or if possible, in terms of a
single trigonometric function only. Notice how we have used this principle in
the examples above.

Example 6.8.6. Show that

tan x 1
= (6.12)
1 tan2 x cot x tan x
 273

Solution. We can start with the right side and write everything in terms of
tan x only:

1 1
=
cot x tan x 1
tan x
tan x
1
=
1 tan2 x
tan x
tan x
= .
1 tan2 x

Let us present an alternative solution to the last example.

The expression on the left of (6.12) can be written in terms of sin x and cos x
as follows:
sin x
tan x cos x
=
1 tan2 x sin2 x
1
cos2 x
sin x cos2 x
= ·
cos x cos2 x sin2 x
sin x cos x
= .
cos2 x sin2 x

On the other hand, the expression on the right of (6.12) can be written as:

1 1
=
cot x tan x cos x sin x
sin x cos x
1
=
cos2 x sin2 x
sin x cos x
sin x cos x
= .
cos2 x sin2 x

Since the left and the right expressions of (6.12) have been shown to be equal
to the same expression, it follows that

tan x 1
= .
1 tan2 x cot x tan x

The second solution given in the last example illustrates a general principle
in proving identities: An identity is proved if the two expressions on both sides
can be shown to be equal to a common expression.
274

Example 6.8.7. Prove:

1 1
2 tan ✓ sec ✓ = .
1 sin ✓ 1 + sin ✓

Solution. The expression on the left can be written as follows:

sin ✓ 1
2 tan ✓ sec ✓ = 2
cos ✓ cos ✓
2 sin ✓
= ,
cos2 ✓

while the one on the right can be expressed as follows:

1 1 (1 + sin ✓) (1 sin ✓)
=
1 sin ✓ 1 + sin ✓ 1 sin2 ✓
2 sin ✓
= .
cos2 ✓

Therefore
1 1
2 tan ✓ sec ✓ = .
1 sin ✓ 1 + sin ✓

Example 6.8.8. Show that

sec x tan x csc x + cot x 2 tan x csc x + 2 sin x

+ = .
sec x + tan x csc x cot x tan x sin x + sec x 1

Solution. We work on the two sides and write both in terms of sin x and
cos x only. The expression on the left can be written:

1 sin x 1 cos x
sec x tan x csc x + cot x +
+ = cos x cos x + sin x sin x
sec x + tan x csc x cot x 1 sin x 1 cos x
+
cos x cos x sin x sin x
1 sin x 1 + cos x
= +
1 + sin x 1 cos x
(1 sin x cos x + sin x cos x)
= +
(1 + sin x) (1 cos x)
(1 + sin x + cos x + sin x cos x)
(1 + sin x) (1 cos x)
2 + 2 sin x cos x
= .
(1 + sin x) (1 cos x)
 275

The one on the right can be written as:

sin x 1
2 tan x csc x + 2 sin x 2 + 2 sin x
= cos x sin x
tan x sin x + sec x 1 sin x 1
sin x + 1
cos x cos x
2
+ 2 sin x
= cos x
sin x sin x cos x + 1 cos x
cos x
2 + 2 sin x cos x
=
sin x (1 cos x) + (1 cos x)
2 + 2 sin x cos x
= .
(1 + sin x) (1 cos x)
Therefore,
sec x tan x csc x + cot x 2 tan x csc x + 2 sin x
+ = .
sec x + tan x csc x cot x tan x sin x + sec x 1

We illustrate a powerful technique to prove identities in the next example.

Example 6.8.9. Show:
cos x 1 + sin x
= .
1 sin x cos x
Solution. We start from the left side of the equation and try to derive
the one on the right. We observe that the expression on the right side has
cos x in the denominator. To have cos x in the denominator, we multiply the
denominator (and the numerator also, to get an equivalent expression) by cos x :
cos x cos x · cos x
=
1 sin x (1 sin x) (cos x)
cos2 x
=
(1 sin x) cos x
1 sin2 x
=
(1 sin x) cos x
1 + sin x
= .
cos x
Therefore,
cos x 1 + sin x
= .
1 sin x cos x

The last example shows how one can force to have a factor in the numerator
or the denominator– multiply the numerator and the denominator by the desired
factor. Of course, if the factor is needed in the denominator or numerator, then
it should not be multiplied out with the other factor.
276

Example 6.8.10. Show that

sec x 1 + tan x tan x
= .
sec x + 1 + tan x 1 + sec x
Solution. Starting from the left expression, and since we need a tan x in
the numerator, we have
sec x 1 + tan x sec x 1 + tan x tan x
= ·
sec x + 1 + tan x sec x + 1 + tan x tan x
(sec x 1 + tan x) (tan x)
=
(sec x + 1) tan x + tan2 x
(sec x 1 + tan x) (tan x)
=
(sec x + 1) tan x + (sec2 x 1)
(sec x 1 + tan x) (tan x)
=
(sec x + 1) tan x + (sec x + 1) (sec x 1)
(sec x 1 + tan x) (tan x)
=
(sec x + 1) (tan x + sec x 1)
tan x
= .
1 + sec x

An alternative solution for the last problem is to multiply both the numer-
ator and the denominator of the left by (1 + sec x) . The multiplication will be
slightly harder but the factoring will be easier. This can be verified by the
reader.

Exercises 6.8
In Exercises 1-32, prove the given identities.

1. tan2 ✓ sin2 ✓ = tan2 ✓ · sin2 ✓

1 cot2 ✓
2. = sin2 ✓ cos2 ✓
1 + cot2 ✓
csc2 ✓ 1
3. = cot4 ✓
sec2 ✓ 1
sin ✓ 1 + cos ✓
4. + = 2 csc ✓
1 + cos ✓ sin ✓
1 cos x sin x
5. =
sin x 1 + cos x
cos x
6. = 1 + sin x
sec x tan x
 277

7. 3 sin2 ✓ + 4 cos2 ✓ = 3 + cos2 ✓

cos2 ✓
8. 1 + = sin ✓
1 + sin ✓
1 + tan ✓ cot ✓ + 1
9. =
1 tan ✓ cot ✓ 1
sec ✓ sin ✓
10. + = 2 tan ✓
csc ✓ cos ✓
1 sin ✓ cos ✓
11. + = 2 sec ✓
cos ✓ 1 sin ✓
sin ✓ 1
12. =
sin ✓ cos ✓ 1 cot ✓
cos ✓ sin ✓
13. + = sin ✓ + cos ✓
1 tan ✓ 1 cot ✓
tan ✓ + sec ✓ 1
14. = tan ✓ + sec ✓
tan ✓ sec ✓ + 1
tan ✓ cot ✓
15. = sin2 ✓ cos2 ✓
tan ✓ + cot ✓
sec ✓ + tan ✓
16. = tan ✓ sec ✓
cot ✓ + cos ✓
1 tan2 ✓
17. + 1 = 2 cos2 ✓
1 + tan2 ✓
sec ✓ csc ✓
18. = sin ✓ cos ✓
sec ✓ csc ✓
19. sec ✓ cos ✓ sin ✓ tan ✓ = 0
sec ✓ 1 + sin ✓
20. =
1 sin ✓ cos3 ✓
(sec ✓ tan ✓)2 + 1
21. = 2 tan ✓
csc ✓(sec ✓ tan ✓)

sin3 ✓ + cos3 ✓
22. =1 sin ✓ cos ✓
sin ✓ + cos ✓
(2 cos2 ✓ 1)2
23. =1 2 sin2 ✓
cos4 ✓ sin4 ✓
1 + sin ✓ + cos ✓ 1 + cos ✓
24. =
1 + sin ✓ cos ✓ sin ✓
tan ✓ cot ✓
25. + = 1 + tan ✓ + cot ✓
1 cot ✓ 1 tan ✓
278

26. ln |1 + cos ✓| + ln |1 cos ✓| = 2 ln |sin ✓|

(sec ✓ tan ✓)2 + 1
27. = 2 sec ✓
sec ✓ tan ✓
28. ln |sec A + tan A| = ln |sec A tan A|
3 cos ✓ 3 cos ✓
29. + = 3 sin ✓ tan ✓
2 2 csc ✓ 2 + 2 csc ✓
sec x 1 + cos x
30. =
tan x sin x sin3 x
cos x + sin x 1
31. = csc x tan x
cos x sin x + 1
sin ✓ cos ✓ + 1
32. = tan ✓ + sec ✓
sin ✓ + cos ✓ 1

In Exercises 33-44, determine whether or not the equation is an identity. If it

is, prove it. If it is not, give a counterexample.

33. tan2 x + tan x = 2 tan3 x

1 1 2
34. =
1 sin ✓ 1 + sin ✓ tan ✓ cos ✓
csc x + 1
35. = (sec x + tan x)2
csc x 1
cot ↵ 1 sec ↵
36. =
1 tan ↵ csc ↵
37. 1 tan3 x = (2 tan x sec2 x)(tan x 1)

38. sec x = sin x(tan x + cot x)

cot x sec x + tan x
39. =
1 tan x cot x
1 sin x
40. 2(tan2 x 2 tan x + 1) = 1
1 + sin x
41. cos2 t 4 cos t = 5
✓ ◆
1
42. log log(sin t) = 1
sin x

43. sec2 x + csc x sec x 1 tan x = tan2 x + cos x cot x

csc x csc x
44. + 2 sec2 x =
1 csc x 1 + csc x
 CHAPTER
Applications of Trigonometry
7
Trigonometry has a lot of applications in astronomy, time keeping, geography,
engineering and physics, and even in very unlikely fields such as phonetics,
psychology and medical imaging (CAT scans and ultrasound images). Even
though primitive trigonometry came about primarily because of astronomy and
time keeping, trigonometry is being used for other purposes as well.

The use of trigonometry in some

fields is obvious. For example, in nav-
igation and architecture, it is easy to
imagine how the study of triangles can
be used, as these are the common ex-
amples to illustrate the concepts and
applications of trigonometry. On the
other hand, there are fields where the
use of trigonometry maybe very subtle,
as in the case of music theory. The use
of trigonometry is related to Pythago- Vibrating guitar string, forming a
ras’ contribution to the earliest known periodic wave
mathematical theory of music. The
similarity between the behavior of a string when plucked and the graph of the
sine wave is mathematical and not a mere coincidence.

In this chapter, we apply properties of trigonometric functions to solve and

calculate trigonometric problems. Also, we study the polar coordinate system
in contrast to the rectangular coordinate system as previously introduced.

References:
Retrieved from http://www.clarku.edu/ djoyce/trig/ on 27 February 2010
Retrieved from http://baqaqi.chi.il.us/buecher/mathematics/trigonometry/index.html on 27
February 2010
 293

7.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant functions are not
one-to-one functions. Thus each of the above functions has no inverse function.
However, the domain of a function that is not one-to-one may be restricted to
make the function one-to-one. If f is not one-to-one on its domain D but one-
to-one on some D1 ⇢ D, then the inverse of f is well-defined if f is restricted to
the set D1 .
We will first consider the sine function. Note that the graph is one-to-one
in the closed interval [ ⇡2 , ⇡2 ]. See Figure 7.1. We will define sin 1 x so that
p
cos (sin 1 x) is nonnegative, that is, cos (sin 1 x) = 1 x2 .

Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2

Definition 7.1.1. The inverse sine function, denoted by sin 1 , is defined as fol-
lows:
⇡ ⇡
y = sin 1 x if and only if x = sin y and y .
2 2
The graph
⇥ ⇡ ⇡of
⇤ sin
1
is shown in Figure 7.2. The domain is [ 1, 1] while the
range is 2, 2 .

Example 7.1.2. Find the exact value of y if y = sin 2.

1 1

Solution. There are two points on the unit circle where the sine value is 12 ,
one on the first quadrant and the other on the second quadrant. However, the
definition of inverse sine requires the point to be in the first quadrant and that
y 2 [ ⇡2 , ⇡2 ]. Thus y = ⇡6 .
Example 7.1.3. Find the measure of the angle sin 1 2
3 up to 4 decimal places.
Solution. No special angle yields a sine value of 23 . We can use the calcu-
lator to approximate the answer. Your calculator should be set to radian mode.
294

In some calculators, the number 23 is entered first, then the key labeled sin 1
is pressed. In other calculators, it is the other way around. In any case, the
answer should be the same, which is 0.7297 radians.

We now introduce the inverse cosine function. As in the case of sin 1 , we

want
p to define cos 1 so that sin (cos 1 x) is nonnegative, that is, sin (cos 1 x) =
1 x2 . We first restrict the cosine function to the interval [0, ⇡]. The graph of
cosine restricted to [0, ⇡] is shown in Figure 7.3. The horizontal line test shows
that this restricted cosine function is indeed one-to-one.

Definition 7.1.4. The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos 1 , is defined as

follows:
y = cos 1 x if and only if x = cos y and 0  y  ⇡.
The graph of the inverse cosine function is shown in Figure 7.4. The domain
is [ 1, 1] and the range is [0, ⇡].

Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4

It can be shown that the inverse sine and inverse cosine functions are re-
lated in the following way:
⇡
cos 1
x= sin 1
x
2
for each x 2 [ 1, 1] . The proof is left as an exercise.
⇣ ⌘
Example 7.1.5. Find the exact value of cos 1 p1 .
2

Solution. There are two points on the unit circle that yield a cosine value
of p12 . One is in the second quadrant and the other is in the third quadrant.
But since the range of inverse cosine is [0, ⇡], the answer must be 4 .
3⇡

Example 7.1.6. Evaluate: cos 1 cos 7⇡

6 .
 295

Solution. We need to find the real number x 2 [0, ⇡] such that cos x = cos 7⇡
6 .
Since cos 6 is negative, x corresponds to a point on the unit circle that lies in
7⇡

the second quadrant. Thus x = 5⇡ 6 .

⇥ ⇤
Example 7.1.7. Find the exact value of cos sin 1 3 + cos
2 1 1
6 .
Solution. Let ↵ = sin 1 3 and let
2
= cos 1 16 . Then sin ↵ = 23 and
q p q p
cos ↵ = 1 49 = 35 . Similarly, cos = 16 and sin = 1 36 1
= 635 . By the
identity, cos (↵ + ) = cos ↵ cos sin ↵ sin , we have
 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ p ✓ ◆p p p
2 1 1 51 2 35 5 + 2 35
cos sin 1
+ cos = = .
3 6 3 6 3 6 18

The tangent function, unlike the sine and cosine functions, has asymptotes.
Its range is the set of real numbers. Note that the function is one-to-one over
one period. If the domain of tan x is restricted to the interval 2 , 2 , then
⇡ ⇡

tan x becomes one-to-one. See Figure 7.5. We then define the inverse tangent
function. Such a restriction ensures that
p
sec (tan 1 x) = x2 + 1 0
for any x 2 R.

Figure 7.5 Figure 7.6

Definition 7.1.8. The inverse tangent function , denoted by tan 1 , is defined as

follows:
⇡ ⇡
y = tan 1 x if and only if x = tan y and <y< .
2 2
The domain of tan 1 x is the set of real numbers and its range is 2, 2 .
⇡ ⇡

The graph has two horizontal asymptotes, namely, y = 2 and y = 2 , as shown

⇡ ⇡

in Figure 7.6.
296

Example 7.1.9. Find the exact value of sec tan 1 1

4 .

Solution. Recall the identity sec2 ↵ = 1 + tan2 ↵. Let ↵ = tan 1 14 . Then

tan ↵ = 14 . It follows that sec2 ↵ = 1 + 16
1
16 . Since ↵ 2
= 17 2 , 2 , sec ↵ is the
⇡ ⇡
p
principal square root of 16 .
17
Thus sec ↵ = 4 .
17

Example 7.1.10. A portrait 6 feet high is placed on a wall so that the base of
the portrait is 4 feet above the eye level of an observer. See Figure 7.7. Suppose
the observer is x feet from the wall and ✓ is the radian measure of ✓ the angle
◆
6x
subtended by the portrait at the observer’s eye. Show that ✓ = tan 1
.
x2 + 40

Figure 7.7

Solution. Let ↵ and be angles as shown in the figure. Then tan ↵ = 4

x and
x . We make use of an identity in the following:
tan = 10

tan tan ↵
tan ✓ = tan ( ↵) =
1 + tan tan ↵.

Therefore,
10 4 ✓ ◆
6x 6x
tan ✓ = x x
= 2 and ✓ = tan 1
.
1+ 10 4
x x
x + 40 x + 40
2

The domain of the secant function can also be restricted so that it becomes
one-to-one. See Figure 7.8. Let the restricted domain of sec x be the set [0, ⇡2 ) [
2 ). With this restriction, we have
[⇡, 3⇡
p
tan (sec 1
x) = x2 1 0

for any x 2 ( 1, 1] [ [1, +1).

 297

Figure 7.8 Figure 7.9

Definition 7.1.11. The inverse secant function, denoted by sec 1 , is defined as

follows:
h ⇡ ⌘  3⇡ ◆
y = sec x if and only if x = sec y and y 2 0,
1
[ ⇡, .
2 2
The domain of sec 1 x is [1, +1) [ ( 1, 1] and its range is [0, ⇡2 ) [ [⇡, 3⇡
2 ).
The graph is shown in Figure 7.9.
⇥ ⇤
Example 7.1.12. Find the exact value of tan 12 sec 1 ( 5) .
Solution. Let ✓ = sec 1(5) Then sec ✓ = 5 and cos ✓ = 15 . Since cos ✓ < 0
q p
we have ✓ 2 [⇡, 2 ) so that sin ✓ =
3⇡
1 25 1
= 2 5 6 . We make use of the
identity
1 sin ✓
tan ✓ =
2 1 + cos ✓
so that p p
 2 6
1 6
tan sec ( 5) =
1 5
= .
2 1+ 5 1 2

Other notations used for the inverse trigonometric functions involve placing
the arc at the beginning of the trigonometric function. This means that sin 1 x
is also denoted by arcsin x, cos 1 x = arccos x, tan 1 x = arctan x, etc.
Other inverse trigonometric functions are defined below.

Definition 7.1.13. Let x 2 ( 1, 1] [ [1, +1). Then csc 1x = ⇡

2 sec 1 x.

Definition 7.1.14. Let x be a real number. The cot 1x = ⇡

2 tan 1 x.
298

Exercises 7.1
In Exercises 1-12, find the exact value without using a calculator.
p
1. cos 10
7. tan 1
3
3

2. sin 1
( 1) 8. tan 1( 1)

3. cos 1 1 9. sec 1( 2)
2
10. sec 1 (1)
4. sin 1
( 2)
1
p
p 11. csc 1 2
5. sin 1
( 2 )
3
p !
2 3
p 12. csc 1
6. cos 1(
2 )
3 3

In Exercises 13-18, approximate the value using a calculator.

p
13. sin 1
(0.5562) 16. cos 1(
5 )
3

14. sin 1
( 0.44) 17. tan 1( 7 )
11

15. cos 1( 0.6137) 18. tan 1( 3)

19. Given that ✓ = cos 1 ( p213 ), find the exact value of each of the following:
(a) sin ✓, (b) tan ✓, (c) cot ✓, (d) sec ✓, and (e) csc ✓.

20. Given that ↵ = tan 1 ( 13 ), find the exact value of each of the following:
(a) sin ↵, (b) cos ↵, (c) cot ↵, (d) sec ↵, and (e) csc ↵.

In Exercises 21-46, find the exact value without using a calculator.

21. sin 1
[sin( 6 )]
⇡
29. cos 1 [tan(
4 )]
⇡

22. cos 1 (cos 2⇡ )

3
30. tan 1 (sin ⇡ )
2

23. sin 1
(sin 34 ⇡) 31. sin[tan 1( 1)]

24. sin 1
(sin 53 ⇡) 32. csc[tan 1( 2)]
p
25. cos 1 (cos 11 ⇡)
6
33. tan[cos 1(
2 )]
3

p
26. cos 1 [cos( 5 ⇡)]
4 34. cos[csc 1 2 3]
3

27. tan 1 (tan 4 ⇡)

3 35. sin[cos 1(
5 )]
3

28. tan 1 [tan( 7

6 ⇡)] 36. cos(tan 1 4)
3
 299

37. sin[cos 1(
3)
2
sin 1
( 3 )]
1
42. cos(2 tan 1 4)
3

38. cos[sin 1
( 2)
1
+ sin 4]
1 1
43. sec(2 tan 1 3)
4

39. tan[cos 1 3
5 + sin 1
( 13 )]
12
44. csc[ 12 sin 1
( 5 )]
3

40. sec(sin 1 5
13 tan 1 3)
4 45. cot2 ( 12 tan 1 4)
3

41. cos[2 sin 1

( 13 )]
5
46. sin2 ( 12 cos 1 3)
5

In Exercises 47-48, find f 1 and its domain and range.

47. f (x) = 1
4 cos 1 2x

48. f (x) = 3 sin 1

(4x 1)

In Exercises 49-58, sketch the graph of the function. Indicate the domain and
range of each.

49. f (x) = cos 1 (x 2) 54. f (x) = cos 1 (cos x)

50. f (x) = sin 1

(x + 1) 55. f (x) = tan 1 3x

⇡
51. f (x) = tan 1x + 56. f (x) = cos 1 2x
2
52. f (x) = cos 1x ⇡ 57. f (x) = 1
3 csc 1 1x
2

53. f (x) = sin sin 1

x 58. f (x) = 2 sec 1( x )
4

59. Solve for x: tan 1 (x2 + 4x + 3) = 4.

⇡

60. If x = 2 sin 1
✓, express sin 2x in terms of ✓.

61. Show that cos 1 (x) = ⇡

2 sin 1
(x) for each x 2 [ 1, 1] .

62. Prove: tan 1 1

v + tan 1v = ⇡2 , v > 0.

63. Suppose 0 < ↵, < 2.

⇡
If tan ↵ = a
a+1 and tan = 2a+1 ,
1
prove that
↵ + = ⇡4 .

64. Prove: 2 tan 1 1

3 tan 1(
7)
1
= 14 ⇡
300

7.2 Trigonometric Equations

Recall that a trigonometric identity is an equation involving any of the six
trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant)
that holds for any real number for which each member of the equation is de-
fined.

Illustration 7.2.1. The equation sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x is an equation whose

members are sec2 x, 1 and tan2 x. Each member of the equation is defined for all
real numbers x not equal to an odd multiple of ⇡2 . Since the equation is true for
all such numbers, the above equation is said to be an identity.
In this section, we are interested in solving trigonometric equations that
are not trigonometric identities. A trigonometric equation is not an identity if
not all numbers for which the members of the equation are defined satisfy the
equation.

Illustration 7.2.2. The equation cos 2x = 12 has members cos 2x and 12 , which
are well-defined for all real numbers x. But not every real number satisfies the
given equation. Hence, the given equation is not an identity.

Example 7.2.3. Find all real numbers x such that the equation cos 2x = 1
2 is
true.

Solution. A particular solution is when 2x = ⇡3 . If k is an integer, then

⇡
3 + 2k⇡ can also be substituted for 2x. Therefore all real numbers x = ⇡6 + k⇡
satisfy the equation. On the other hand, another particular solution is 2x = 5⇡ 3 .
So the numbers x = 5⇡ 6 + k⇡ are also solutions. The complete set of solutions is
n ⇡ o ⇢ 5⇡
x | x = + k⇡, k 2 Z [ x | x = + k⇡, k 2 Z .
6 6

As in solving an algebraic equation, trigonometric equations are solved by

obtaining several equivalent equations until the solution becomes apparent.
In obtaining such equivalent equations, we may need to do some algebraic
manipulations such as transposition and factoring common terms.

Example 7.2.4. Find the solution set in R of the equation

p
2 sin x cos x = cos x

Solution. A series of equivalent equations is obtained as follows:

p
2 sin x cos x cos x = 0
p
cos x( 2 sin x 1) = 0.
 301

From the last equation above, we can conclude that either

cos x = 0

or p
( 2 sin x 1) = 0.
If cos x = 0 then, for any integer k, the real number x = ⇡2 + k⇡ is a solution.
p
On the other hand, if ( 2 sin x 1) = 0, then the real numbers x = ⇡4 + 2k⇡ and
x = 3⇡4 + 2k⇡ are also solutions. The solution set is given by

⇡ ⇡ 3⇡
{x|x = + k⇡, k 2 Z} [ {x|x = + 2k⇡, k 2 Z} [ {x|x = + 2k⇡, k 2 Z}.
2 4 4

Another technique for solving a trigonometric equation is using known iden-

tities.

Example 7.2.5. Find the solution set in the closed interval [ 4⇡, 4⇡] of the equa-
tion
2 cos2 x = sin x + 1.

Solution. The given equation has a series of equivalent equations written

as follows:

2(1 sin2 x) = sin x + 1

2 sin2 x + sin x 1 = 0
(2 sin x 1)(sin x + 1) = 0.

The last equation above implies that either

1
sin x =
2
or
sin x = 1
Let the values of k be integers only. If sin x = 12 , then every real number that
satisfies
⇡
4⇡  + 2k⇡  4⇡
6
is a solution. The above double inequality yields
1 11
2 k1 .
12 12
The integer values of k that satisfy this last double inequality are 2, 1, 0 and
1. So part of the solution set is the set
n ⇡ o ⇢ 23⇡ 11⇡ ⇡ 13⇡
A = x|x = + 2k⇡, k = 2, 1, 0, 1 = , , , .
6 6 6 6 6
302

Similarly, if sin x = 12 , every real number that satisfies

5⇡
4⇡  + 2k⇡  4⇡
6
is also a solution. This yields
5 7
2 k1 .
12 12
The integer values of k that satisfy the above double inequality are also 2, 1, 0
and 1. From this we obtain another part of the solution set
⇢ ⇢
5⇡ 19⇡ 7⇡ 5⇡ 17⇡
B = x|x = + 2k⇡, k = 2, 1, 0, 1 = , , , .
6 6 6 6 6

If, on the other hand, sin x = 1, then every real number 3⇡ 2 + 2k⇡ in the closed
interval [ 4⇡, 4⇡] is also a solution. From this we get 2 34  k  1 14 . Again, the
values of k that we need are 2, 1, 0 and 1. The last part of our solution set is
then given by
⇢ ⇢
3⇡ 5⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡
C= x:x= + 2k⇡, k = 2, 1, 0, 1 = , , , .
2 2 2 2 2

The complete solution set is the union

⇢
23⇡ 11⇡ ⇡ 13⇡ 19⇡ 7⇡ 5⇡ 17⇡ 5⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡
A[B[C = , , , , , , , , , , , .
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2

For some equations, we can only approximate the solutions. For these equa-
tions, we really have to use our calculators.

Example 7.2.6. Find the solution set in R of the equation sec2 x + tan x = 3.

Solution. By the identity sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x, the given equation has the
following series of equivalent equations

1 + tan2 x + tan x = 3
tan2 x + tan x 2 = 0
(tan x + 2)(tan x 1) = 0.

If tan x + 2 = 0, there is no special angle such that tan x = 2. However, a

calculator in radian mode would estimate one solution to be 1.1071. This value
is actually tan 1 ( 2) as defined in the previous section. Since tan (✓ + ⇡) =
tan ✓, we conclude that part of the solution set is

A = {x|x = 1.1071 + k⇡, k 2 Z}.

 303

On the other hand, if tan x 1 = 0 then x belongs to the set

⇡
B = {x|x = + k⇡, k 2 Z}.
4
The complete solution set is thus the set A [ B.
Some equations have no solution at all.

Example 7.2.7. Show that the equation

(sin2 x + 1)(cos x 2) = 0

has no solution.

Solution. Either sin2 x + 1 = 0 or cos x 2 = 0. If sin2 x + 1 = 0 then

sin x = 1, which does not have a solution in the set of real numbers. On the
2

other hand, if cos x 2 = 0 then cos x = 2. But the range of cos is [ 1, 1]. Hence
no real value of x will yield cos x = 2. From this we conclude that the given
equation has no solution.
For any real number x, we have defined sin x to be the value of sin ✓ where
✓ is the angle whose radian measure is x. The other trigonometric functions of
real numbers are defined similarly.
In the succeeding sections, we will be dealing with angles of triangles. Hence,
it is always convenient to express angle measures in terms of degrees.
The following examples require the corresponding degree measures of the
solutions.

Example 7.2.8. Find the corresponding degree measures of all the solutions of
the equation
4 sin 2x 3 cos x = 0.

Solution. We consider x already as a degree measure. A series of equiva-

lent equations is obtained as follows:

4(2 sin x cos x) 3 cos x = 0

cos x(8 sin x 3) = 0.

Then either cos x = 0 or 8 sin x 3 = 0. If cos x = 0, then

x = 90 + k · 180

where k is any integer. If 8 sin x 3 = 0, the calculator (in degree mode) yields
the corresponding degree measure of sin 1 38 , which is around 22.02 degrees.
Hence, all degree measures given by

x = 22.02 + k · 360
304

are also solutions. Now, 180 22.02 = 157.98 is a degree measure that also
satisfies the given equation. Thus all degree measures given by

x = 157.98 + k · 360

are also solutions. Hence the solution set is

{x | x = 90 + k · 180 or x = 22.02 + k · 360

or x = 157.98 + k · 360 , where k is an integer}

Example 7.2.9. Find all the solutions of the equation

2 sin 2x cos 3x + cos 3x = 0

if x is in degrees and 0  x < 360 .

Solution. An equation that is equivalent to the given equation is

cos 3x(2 sin 2x + 1) = 0.

If cos 3x = 0, then 3x = 90 + k · 180 , where we want the integer k so that

0  x < 360 . Equivalently, we want 0  3x < 1080 . This yields 0  k < 6.
The integer values of k that we want are therefore 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The set of
corresponding degree measures of x is

A = {30 , 90 , 150 , 210 , 270 , 330 }.

On the other hand, if 2 sin 2x+1 = 0, then 2x = 210 +k·360 or 2x = 330 +k·360
where the values of k are chosen so that 0  2x < 720 . For 2x = 210 + k · 360 ,
we get 12 7
 k < 1 12
5
; for 2x = 330 + k · 360 , we get 11
12  k < 1 12 . In either
1

case, the integral values of k that we want are 0 and 1 only. These values of k
yield the following set of values of x:

B = {x|x = 105 + k · 180 , k = 0, 1} [ {x|x = 165 + k · 180 , k = 0, 1}

= {105 , 285 } [ {165 , 345 }

The complete solution set is

A [ B = {30 , 90 , 150 , 210 , 270 , 330 , 105 , 285 , 165 , 345 } .

 305

Exercises 7.2
In Exercises 1-22, find the solution set in R of the given equations.
p
1. sin ✓ = 2
3 12. cos x + sec x 2=0
p
2. tan ✓ = 3 13. sin 2✓ = cos ✓
3

3. sin 2✓ = 1 14. cos 2✓ = cos ✓

4. cos 2✓ = 1 15. cot2 ✓ + 3 csc ✓ = 3

2
p
5. tan 3x = 3 16. sec2 x 4 tan x = 6

6. sec 4x = 4 17. cot2 x 3=0

7. 2 cos2 t 5 cos t 3=0 18. 4 sin2 x = 3

8. 2 sin2 t + 3 sin t = 2 19. cos2 12 x = 1

9. 9 sin2 ✓ + 6 sin ✓ = 8 20. sec2 2x 2=0

10. 2 cos2 t + cos t 1=0 21. sin x + cos x = 1

p
11. 2 cos t csc t = 0 22. sin ✓ 3 cos ✓ = 1

In Exercises 23-36, find the solution set of the given equations in the indicated
interval.
⇥ ⇤
23. 2 cos2 x 1 = 0, 0, ⇡2 30. tan2 4x 3 = 0, [0, 2⇡)
⇥
24. 4 csc2 x 3 = 0, [0, 2⇡) 31. cos 4x = 10 cos2 2x 3, ⇡2 , ⇡2

25. 2 sin2 x + 3 sin x = 1, [0, 2⇡) 32. sin 2✓ + sin 4✓ = 0, [ ⇡, ⇡)

26. 2 sin3 x + sin x = 0, [0, 2⇡) 33. 2 tan x 2 = sec x, [0, ⇡)

27. 3 cos 2x + 2 sin2 x = 2, [ 2⇡, 0) 34. 2 sin x (1 + tan x) = 2 sec x 1, [0, 2⇡)
p
28. tan2 x sec x = 1, [0, 2⇡) 35. sin 3x + cos 3x = 2 , [0, ⇡)
5

29. cot2 12 x = 3, [0, 2⇡) 36. sin2 x + 5 cos2 x

2 = 2, [0, 2⇡)

In Exercises 37-43, find the corresponding degree measures of all solutions of

the given equations.

37. 2 tan2 ✓ sec ✓ = 1 40. cot2 4x 1 = csc 4x

38. 7 sin x 4 sin 2x = 0
39. tan x2 + 5 = 3 sec2 x
2
41. tan2 2x + 3 sec 2x + 3 = 0