a d ay, Chapter ‘ AUTOMATION 11. INTRODUCTION The word automation comes from the Greek word “automatos”, meaning self-acting. The word automation was coined in the mid-1940s by the U.S, automobile industry to indicate the automatic handling of parts between production machines, together with their continuous processing at the machines. The advances in computers and control systems have extended the definition of automation. By the middle of the 20th century, automation had existed for many years on a small scale, using mechanical devices to automate the production of simply shaped items: However the concept only became truly practical with the addition of the computer, whose flexibility allowed it to drive almost any sort of task. 1.2, DEFINITION OF AUTOMATION Automation can generally be defined as the process of following a predetermined sequence of operations with little or no human labour, using specialized equipment and devices that perform and control manufacturing processes. Automation in its full sense, is achieved through the use of a variety of devices, sensors, actuators, techniques, and equipment that are capable of observing the manufacturing process, making decisions concerning the changes that need to be made in the operation, and controlling all aspects of it. OR ‘Automation is the process in industry where various production operations are converted from a manual process, to an automated or mechanized process For Example: Let's assume {hat a worker is operating a metal lathe, The worker collects the stock, already cut to size, from a bin. He then places it in the lathe chuck, and moves the various hand-wheels on the machine to create a component; a bolt could be such an item. Once finished the worker commences the process again to make another item. This would be a manual process: If this process were automated, the worker would place long lengths of bar into the feed mechanism of an automatic lathe. The lathe mechanisms feed the material into the chuck, turn the piece to the correct shape and size, and cut it off the bar before commencing another item. This is an example of an automated machine in a manufacturing, process aInpuSTAIAL AUTOMATION AND Rope ps . i AU * —panatn tep Dnd esanil” E em ob he mot i me Se ee earns ‘mostly controlled by computer Programs att of 13 i tomated pri n automation. Modern automated Proce or progr through the action of sensors and a Decisions ma fess and control the sequences of dleby the computer ensure that the process is company ee until the process is complete. - accurately and quickly. i e \d unemployment; the dr jon will result in layoffs an« ployment; they beliey, Many people fear that automaren To. pasically, automation does take over jobs ree it 4 twei its evils considerably outweigh aera ment, as some people fear, for three very pogines | * e by men, but automation need n‘ = ot i ‘oduct, th jv red to produce a product, the reduction j | in terms of the numbers of men requ \ - Hint i sclncement which can be offset by the demands of a broadening market as wea temporary disp! este And don't forget, ib stlitakes many men to build, servicgandl the creation of new ind je machine. operate any automatic mad ae Second, automation does not happen overnight; itis an & olutionary process. Manual, direc labor work will be progressively transformed into work, which will be cleaner, easier, safer, ang more rewarding to the worker, who, through the process of automation itself, will be trained fo, povore ahillfl accomplishments required in the better jobs of the future. ‘Third, and most important, automation is the necessary solution to a predicted shortage of labor. It is designed to do the work of men who are not there; itis a solution to a problem, not a cause. Automation is a technology dealing with tl production of goods and services. Manufacturin; It includes: * Automatic machine tools to process parts. he application of mechatronics and computers for ig automation deals with the production of goods, * Automatic assembly machines. © Industrial robots. * Automatic material handling. * Automated storage and retrieval systems. * Automatic inspection systems. * Feedback control systems. * Computer systems for automatically transforming designs into parts. * Computer systems for planning and decision making to support manufacturing. The decision to automate a new or existing facility requires the following considerations to be taken into account: |), 1 Type of product manufactured. © Quantity and the rate of production required ¢ Particular phase of the manufacturing operation to be automated. * Level of skill in the available workforce. * Reliability and maintenance problems that may be associated with automated systems. * Economics. ia ee 3 AUTOMATION 1.3. MECHANIZATION VS. AUTOMATION ‘Mechanization refers to the use of powered machinery to help a human operator in some task. The use of hand-powered tools is not an example of mechanization. The term is most often used in industry. The addition of powered machine tools; such as the steam powered lathe dramatically reduced the amount of time needed to carry out various tasks, and improves productivity. Today very little construction of any sort is carried out with hand tools. Automation and mechanization are often confused with each other, though it should not be too hard to keep them apartMechanization saves the use of human muscles; automation saves the use of human judgment. Mechanization displaces physical labour, whereas automation displaces mental labour) Mechanization is the replacement of human power by machine power. Mechanization often replaces craftwork and creates jobs for unskilled labor. It also only affects one or two industries ata time. Mechanization moves slowly and the job displacement is short-term. Mechanization is what occurred during the industrial revolution. Automation is the replacement of human thinking with computers and machines. Automation tends to create jobs for skilled workers at the expense of unskilled and semi-skilled workers. It affects many industries at the same time, moving rapidly. It also creates longer-term job displacement and has been more characteristic since the 1950s. 1.4, ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION Manufacturing companies in virtually every industry are achieving rapid increases in productivity by taking advantage of automation technologies. When one thinks of automation in manufacturing, robots usually come to mind. The automotive industry was the early adopter of robotics, using these automated machines for material handling, processing operations, and assembly and inspection. Automation can be applied to manufacturing of all types. The advantages of automation are: * Increase in productivity. * Reduction in production costs. * Minimization of human fatigue * Less floor area required. © Reduced maintenance requirements. * Better working conditions for workers. © Effective control over production process. © Improvement in quality of products. * Reduction in accidents and hence safety for workers. a * Uniform components are produced 1.5. GOALS OF AUTOMATION Automation has certain primary goals as listed below: + ‘Integrate various aspects of manufacturing operations so as to improve the product quality and uniformity, minimize cycle times and effort, and thus reduce labour costs ; aS= | Plo InousTRIAL AUTOMATION AND Rogg in ho Improve productivity by reducing manufactuti ns core Sour a roduction. Parts are loaded, fed, and unloade: pee ee ‘ a ‘used more effectively and production 1s organize ore repeatable processes. + Improve quality by employing m: eh | : elie uitin savelvense Boredom, and BoBellty OF age ence = Reduce workpiece damage caused by ‘manual handling of parts. i) Raise the level of safety for personnel, especially under hazardous working condition, era ace in the manufacturing plant by arranging the mach related equipment more efficiently. A * Economize on floor sp material movement, andl 1.6. SOCIAL ISSUES OF AUTOMATION industry in many ways. Automation raises seve i ial issues. Amon, P q P 7 Import soc ise Tare joyment. When automation was frst introduced, it cau vial fear. It was thought that the displacement of oa ‘ies zy a i F ‘d with mechanization, tent ‘Id lead to unemployment (this also happene: te was true, the freeing up of the labour force allowed more people foenter: information sobs, which are typically higher paying. One odd side effect of this shift is that “unskilled labour” tae pays very well in most industrialized nations, because fewer people are available to fill such, jobs leading to supply and demand issues. ; Some argue the reverse, at least in the long term. First, automation has only just begun and short-term conditions might partially obscure its long-term impact. For instance many manufacturing jobs left the United States during the early 1990s, but a massive up scaling of IT jobs at the same time offset this as a whole. Currently, for manufacturing companies, the purpose of automation has shifted from increasing productivity and reducing costs to increasing quality and flexibility in the manufacturing process. Another important social issuse of automation is better working conditions. The automated plants needs controlled temperature, humidity and dust free environment for proper functioning of automated mahcines. Thus the workers gets very good environment to work in. Automation leads to safety of workers. By automating the loading and unloading operations, the chances of accidents to the workers get reduced. Increase in standard of living with the help of automation. Standard of living increase with the increase in productivity and automation is the sure method of increasing produvtivity. The cost of color TVs, washing machines and stereos has declined, thus enabling a large number of households to buy these products. 17. LOW COST AUTOMATION Low cost automation (LCA) is a technology that creates some degree of automation around the existing equipment, tools, methods, people etc. by using standard components available in the market with low investment, so that pay back period is short. ——5) AUTOMATION ‘The benefits of low cost automatiomare manifold. Ienot only simplifies the process, But also reduces tye snatusl content without changing the basic set up Major advantages of low ost automation are low investment, increased labour productivity, smaller batch size, better utilisation of the material and process consistency leading to less rejections. ‘A.wide range of activities such as loading, feeding, clamping, machining, welding, forming, gauging, assembly and packing can be subjected to low cost automation systems adoption. Besicles, low cost automation can be very useful for process industries manufacturing chemicals, oils, or pharmaceuticals. Many operations in food processing industries, which need to be carried out under totally hygienic conditions, can also be rendered easy through low cost automation systems. ‘A wide variety of systems (mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical and electronics) are available for deployment in LCA systems. However, each has its own advantages as well as limitations. For uncomplicated situations, one can build a simple LCA device using any of the above systems, through a rapid techno-economic evaluation. However, in most of the practical applications, hybrid systems are used since that can allow use of the advantages of different __ devices, while simultaneously minimizing individual disadvantages. Issues in Low Cost Automation 4. Assessment of the Current Productivity Level: There are some simple procedures for this. Work sampling (activity sampling) is one of them. It needs no equipment and only very little time to collect the data. If the data is processed, considerable information will come out about the current productivity level. 2. PMTS: Predetermined Motion and Time Studies is a very useful tool to check whether an existing manual operation is correctly pasted. If the time taken is more than desirable, PMTS will help in identifying it and improving it 3. Design for Automation and Assembly: When components are made and assembled manually one may not have thought about the complexity of automation. For example putting half a dozen nuts and bolts is very easy in a manual assembly but very complex for an automatic system. 1.8. TYPES OF AUTOMATION 1. Fixed Automation (Hard Automation) Fixed automation refers to the use of special purpose equipment to automate a fixed sequence of processing or assembly operations. It is typically associated with high production rates and it is relatively difficult to accommodate changes in the product design. This is also called hard automation. For example, GE manufactures approximately 2 billion light bulbs per year and uses fairly specialized, high-speed automation equipment. Fixed automation makes sense only when product designs are stable and product life cycles are Jong Machines used in hard-automation applications are usually built on the building block, or modular principle) They are generally called transfer machines, and consist of the following two major components: powerhead production units and transfer mechanisms.)INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION Ann hes & 6 pure Advantages | © Maximum efficiency: te © Low unit cost: snare of (ficient movement of parts, ling - fast and ef © Automated material hand Very litle WIP. i Disadvantages PH one c ! «Large initial investmen ; c i t variety: © Inflexible in accommodating produc! fr ) ane j ble Auromation - 2. Programma vrmation, te equipments designed (© Accommodate a speci, | au Bree oe processing of sasembly operations con be changed by medigagel __ product changes and the Pree fo "batch provction” oF the manufachite ofa pe! ™ eens eae at regular intervals)./The example of this ‘ind of automation Se eo catiable autbmationy reconfiguring the system for a new product iets a Hote itinvolves reprogramming and set up for the machines, and new fixtures ang = coins Examples include numerically controlled machines, industrial robots ete. a : ir Advantages «Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product ‘ © Low unit cost for large batches. 2 Disadvantages | * New product requires long set up time. * High unit cost relative to fixed automation. 3. Flexible Automation (Soft Automation) In flexible automation, the equipment is designed to manufacture a variety of products or parts and very little time is spent on changing from one product to another. Thus, a flexible ‘manufacturing system can be used to manufacture various combinations of products according to any specified schedule. With a flexible automation system it is possible to quickly incorporate changes in the product (which may be redesigned in reaction to changing market conditions and to consumer feedback) or to quickly introduce a new product line. For example, Honda is widely credited with using flexible automation technology to introduce 113 changes to its line of motorcyde products in the 1970's, Flexible automation gives the manufacturer the ability to produce multiple products cheaply in combination than separately. 3 Advantages * Flexibility to deal with product design variations *° Customized products.__——————— a SOtieg AUTOMATION Disadvantages * Large initial investment. ‘¢ High unit cost relative to fixed or programmable automation. 4.9. CURRENT EMPHASIS IN AUTOMATION ‘Currently, for manufacturing companies, the purpose of automation has shifted from increasing productivity and reducing costs, to broader issues, such as increasing quality and flexibility in fhe manufacturing process. The old focus on using automation simply to increase productivity land reduce costs was seen to be short-sighted, because it is also necessary to provide a skilled qworkforce who can make repairs and manage the machinery. Moreover, the initial costs of automation were high and often could not be recovered by the time entirely new manufacturing processes replaced the old. (Japan’s “robot junkyards” were once world famous in the ‘manufacturing industry.) ‘Automation is now often applied primarily to increase quality in the manufacturing process, where automation can increase quality substantially. For example, automobile and truck pistons used to be installed into engines manually. This is rapidly being transitioned to automated machine installation, because the error rate for manual installment was around 11.5%, but is 0,00001% with automation. Hazardous operations, such as oil refining, the manufacturing of industrial chemicals, and all forms of metal working, were always early contenders for automation. ‘Another major shift in automation is the increased emphasis on flexibility and convertibility in the manufacturing process. Manufacturers are increasingly demanding the ability to easily switch from one manufacturing product to other without having to completely rebuild the production lines. 1.1@. REASONS FOR AUTOMATION 1. Shortage ef labour 2. High cost ef labour 3. Increased productivity: Higher production output per hour of labour input is possible with automation than with manual operations. Productivity is the single most important factor in determining a nation’s standard of living. If the value of output/hour goes up, the overall income levels go up. 4, Competition: The ultimate goal of a company is to increase profits. However, there are other measures that are harder to measure. Automation may result in lower prices, superior products, better labor relations, and a better company image. 5. Safety: Automation allows the employee to assume a supervisory role instead of being directly involved in the manufacturing task. For example, die casting is hot and dangerous and the work pieces are often very heavy. Welding, spray painting and other operations can be a health hazard. Machines can also do these jobs more precisely and achieve better quality products.e INoUSTRIAL AUTOMATION ayo po : Sten, mation allows the manufacturer uutomation also allows ca Spy ! A 8 ra ic 6. Reducing manufacturing reader ickl MB the consumers need: SECOTS” eal ign modifications. handle frequent desi i cere nb oneenatn cut ON decrease the ge, tn Morials, It also enables just-in-time many QP the manufackurer to reduce the in-process inventory, 1, H, ] lower cost S Pos, which in torr aality of the product at 1.11. REASONS FOR NOT AUTOMATION Fe look atrobols and manufacturing automation ag ral house of robots increases productivity, makes okt, L se lost. For example, Fiat reqiar st jobs. But some jobs ar a in nine years by investing in robots. GMs Labour resistance: unemployment. In real competitive and preserves jobs force from 138,000 to 72, worl ent built in collaboration with Toyota ©. Fremont, California emp, 4 automated pl 3100 workers in contrast to 5100 at a comparable older GM plant. otonous tasks are the easiest to auj 2. Cost of upgraded labour: The routine mon “The tasks that are difficult to automate are ones that require skill. Thus manufacna labour must be upgraded. a 3, Initial investment: Cash fl difficult even if the estimat 1 low considerations may make an investment in automa ed rate of return is high. ISSUES FOR AUTOMATION IN FACTORY OPERATIONS Task is too difficult to automate. iL © Short product lifecycle. © Customised product. © Fluctuatirig demand. © Reduce risk of product failure. * Cheap manual labour. e 1.13. STRATEGIES FOR AUTOMATION ‘© Specialization of operations. * Combined operations * Simultaneous operations. * ,Integration of operations. 7 Increased flexibility. * Amproved material handling and storage. * On-line inspection *” Process control and optimization.AuTOMATION . 2 Plant operations control. * Computer Integrated Manufacturing. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Differentiate between mechanization and automation. (PTU, June 2003) 2. Identify some of the major reasons of automation. (PTU, May 2002) 3. List the Ievels of automation. (PTU, Dec. 2005) 4. Discuss the concept of low cost automation with the help of suitable examples. (PTU, May 2002) 5. What are the types of automation that can be used in a production system? Compare them for their merits and demerits. (PTU, May 2005) 6. Discuss the various levels of automation. (PTU, May 2005) 7. Write short notes on “low cost automation’. (PTU, May 2006, May 2007) Identify major socio-economic considerations favoring automation. (PTU, Dec. 2002) 9, State the advantages of automating production operations. (PTU, Dec. 2006) 10. List down the strategies for automation. 11. Compare hard automation with soft automation. 42, Mention the advantages of flexible automation. (PTU, May*2006) 13. List at least four points why automation is required in industry,Chapter 1 1 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC CONTROLS 4. INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS di ss “hy, i ‘A transducer can be defined as a device capable of converting energy from one form into spotter. Transducers can be four both atthe input as well as atthe output stage of a measuring ate. The input transclucer is called the sensor, because it senses the desired physical quantity ‘yf converts it nto another energy form, The output transducer is called the actuator; because it fig M Converts the energy into a form to which another independent system can react, whether it is a | osical system ora technical system. So, for a biological system the actuator can be a numerical Geplay or a loudspeaker to which the visual or aural senses react respectively. For a technical orfem the actuator could be a ecorder or a laser, producing holes in a ceramic material. Humans ‘an interpret the results. " 'A sensor isa device that produces a signal for purposes of detecting or measuring, a property sach as position, force, torque, pressure, temperature, humidity, speed, vibration ete. eeee technology has become an important component of manufacuring processes and systems, since they convert one quantity to another. Sensors are also referred as transducers. A sensor is a physical device or biological organ that detects, or senses, a signal or physical condition and Eemical compounds. Sensors are devices that provide an interface between ‘electronic equipment tnd the physical world. Often the active element of a sensor is referred to as transducer 11.2, SENSOR TERMINOLOGY (@ Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output of the sensor per unit change in the parameter being measured. The factor may be constant over the range of the sensor (linear), or it may vary (nonlinear) (b) Range: Every sensor is designed to work over a specified range. The design ranges are usually fixed, and if exceeded, result in permanent damage to or destruction of 9 sensor. Range is the difference between maximum and minimum values of the applied parameter that can be measured. (0 Precision: Precision is the degree of reproducibility of the measurements. 249(@ Calibration: It is 056) The following factor should: Have good precision. * Have amplitude linearity. Have environmental compatibility i.e., corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks, size etc 11.4. CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS Sensors can be classified according to the type of energy they detect 1. Thermal energy. For measuring temperature, flux, conductivity, and specific heat. INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION ayy fi Ro jas the smallest change that can be ey : the measuring instrument for ont Li a 's "et, mt teristic of a Sensor iS accuracy, whig ee ‘maccuracy: Inaceuracy to fhe ideal value. Te may P in terms of Yale represented by the 5 ee value. is de! js the response ° jeis the difference in response for increasing and dee Hysteresis: Hysteresis Valy (© Pi he applied parameter ae “ a sensor to approach its true output whe of the appl b eciened to as its response time. oP Stes put that exis! xpression of the extent to which the measur curve. Sure of measured variable for which an inst, 5 ease input is sometimes 1 Offset is the sensor 0 is defined as an & G ity error Itis defined as @ 2 Bes co the ideal theoretical : js defined as the range © 2 eles certo measure with full linearity- Gefined as the comparison of specific valties of the input ang t with the corresponding reference standard values, Output ts when it should be zero, (Offset: § of an instrument ELECTION OF A ‘TRANSDUCER re should be Kept in mind while selecting a transducer. The tangduy et «Recognize and sense the desired input signal and should be sensitive to other sgn, + Have good accuracy. * Temperature sensors: thermometers, thermocouples, thermistors ° Heat sensors: calorimeter Electromagnetic sensors. For measuring voltage, current, charge, magneic field, us and permeability. * Electrical resistance sensors: ohmmeter, multimeter © Electrical current sensors: galvanometer, ammeter * Electrical voltage sensors: voltmeter% Jerronic CONTROLS oat ano But 1 power sensors: watt-hour meters magnetic compass, magnetometer, Hall effeet device snariical #ensOr®: Hor measuting quantities auch as position, shape, Velocity, force, pt) Pressure, strain anc tes preanure wore Daomeve barograph, pressure gauge, alr speed! indicator Peg bine few servers: flow senwor, flow meter, gas meter, Water Meter 's gtrain gauge ‘| Chemical sensors tor-selective electrodes, pH glass electrodes, { Radiation sensors « lectrlca » magnetist” sensors ‘optical an + Bubble chamber, photodiodes, phototransistors, photo-electrie tubes, dosimeter. « photocells, ‘acoustic Sensors + sound sensors: microphones, hydrophones, seismometers CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUC Transducers can be 4, Self-generating an h produce the je, thermopile, moving coil generator, piezoelectric type transducers are those which are not capable of generating their own rical signal of their own but show some variations of able differential d non-self generating transducers, Self-generating transducers are ir own electrical signal (either current or voltage): pick up, photovoltaic « those which 1 ote. thermocoup! Non self-generating agpols These will not produce an clectr nce, capacitance and inductance. For example thermistor, linear va itive pick up, strain gauge, resistance temperature detector ele. resiste transducer, capac 2.Input and ansducers are those that have electronic output and Output transducers. Input tr an electrical signal ‘another form of energy as put ie,, input transducers convert a quantity to (voltage) or to resistance (which can be converted to voltage). Examples: Light dependent resistor (UDR) converts brightness (of light) to resistance, thermistor converts temperature miérophone converts sound to voltage, variable resistor converts position (angle) to resistance ete, Output transducers electronic input and another form of energy for cutput. Examples: lamp converts el converts electricity to light, loudspeaker converts electricity to sound, motor heater converts electricity to heat etc to resistance, are those that have lectricity to light, LED converts electricity to motion, ers, Analog transducer converts input signal into output 3, Analog and Digital transduc such as thermistor, strain gauge, thermocouple, ignal, which is a continuous function of time LVDT etc. Digital transducer converts input signal into the discrete output. output signal of the form of pulse that givesINDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION AND 252 are also classified as: cers ‘i 4. Pe eaics jucers, flow transducers, magnetic transducers ete, Shere wenl preseure canescens + con enti is ee 116, TEMPERATURE SENSORS ture is important in many industrial applica 0% The measurement of tempera a ae r en ire temperature sensors 0} phy: ction and of y BUEN ato ibe considered when selecting the type of sensor tp The 47, s technology: tion: temperature range, accuracy, response time, stability, linearity, ang ‘sea int Pe i a ely used sensors for temperature measurement are seit | e «+ Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) | ie + Thermocouple , — we « Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors |) | 0 on 1. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (oR ‘A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensor that senses temperature y e sa means of changes in the magnitude of current through, or voltage across an clement wig, ed lectrical resistance varies with temperature. These types of sensors provide a change inresistang, si proportional to a change in temperature. Resistance temperature detectors have been eed fo a making accurate temperature measurements. They utilize a resistance element whose resistance changes with the ambient temperature in a precise and known manner. The resistance temperate detector may be connected in a bridge circuit, which drives a display, calibrated to show the temperature of the resistance element. Most metals become more resistant to the passage of an electrical current as the metal increases in temperature. The increase in resistance is generally proportional to the rise in temperature. Thus, a constant current passed through a metal of varying resistance produces a variation in voltage that is proportional to the temperature change. The basic construction of an RTD is quite simple. It consists of a length of fine-coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. (Refer figure 11.1) A ————— {ee \ al Resistance Thermometer ‘12248 Connection Leads Sheath Insulator Fig. 11.1. Resistance Temperature Detector Common Resistance’ Materials for RTDs are platinum, nickel and copper. Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTDs due to its stability and nearly linear temperature. It cm measure temperatures up to 800°C. The resistance of the RTD changes as a function of absohit | Slgn Electronic Controis a gerntont 253 ae A j go it is categorized as one of the absolute tempera sn et ce ge ys pages ae Ginble and accurate. More linear than thermocouples, ia «More expensive. self heating: Requires a current source. «Response time may not be fast enough for some applications, 4, Thermocouple When two dissimilar metal conductors are connected together to form a closed circuit and yy junctions are Kept in different temperatures, thermal electromotive force (EMF) is generated | inte circuit (Secbeck’s effect). Thermocouples make use of this so-called Peltier-Seebeck effect. Thus, a, ‘4 when one end (cold junction) is kept constant at a certain temperature, normally at 0°C, and the oa Iiher end (measuring junction) is exposed to unknown temperature, the temperature at latter end | Ganbe determined by measurement of EMF so generated. This combination of two dissimilar metal Rei) Saductors is called ‘thermocouple’ K) Ny) S CS) vm Mh Measuring Reference iy Junction (Hot) Junction (Cold) ‘ & tty, | ly DS ue Dissimilar eam Metal Wires Fig. 11.2. Thermocouple. Thermocouple is an active transducer, which is used to measure very high temperatures of # — fumaces in industrial plants. Thermocouple consists of a pair of dissimilar metals/wires joined # together to form a junction as shown in Figure 11.2. One end of the junction is the sensing end, Which is to be immersed in the medium of temperature. This is called hot junction. The other end aINDUSTRIAL AUToMArtoy ANE ince Ro, junction, which is maintained at q th cold or ee heated by Keeping the sensing eng of pot ‘When the hot jun’ ‘ure is to DE ‘measured, a temperature difference on conn edium whose re aices ‘an em4,, which causes a current in the oo reference eae of voltmeter ‘ ii Pal irenit containing two junctions is lustrated in Figure yp. 7 lectric a ctions at two different temperatures T, and T,, Fesulting i Wires ing ju that can be measured. ‘ ty iM B 41.3. Thermoelectric circuit is dit i the junction tem] directly proportional to the j erature di thermocouple voltage is a i v =a(T,-T)) where «t is Seeback coefficient. Advantages + Self powered requiring no external power supply. + Simple, rugged, inexpensive and commonly available. * Can withstand harsh environments. Disadvantages * Nonlinear and require a cold junction compensation for linearization. * Not accurate as RTDs or thermistors. * Low voltage, least stable and sensitive. 3. Thermistor Like RTD, Thermistor is also a temperature sensitive resistor. A thermistor is an electronic component that exhibits a large change in resistance with a change in body temperature Thermistors are highly sensitive to temperature variation; hence they are also called temperature sensitive resistors. Thermistors are manufactured from metal oxide semiconductor material, which is encapsulated in a glass or epoxy bead. Thermistors also have a low thermal mass that results in fast response times, but are limited by a small temperature range. Some of different types o thermistors are shown in Figure 11.4. SAREE Sno EuecraONIC CONTROLS Jes Rod thermistor Dise thermistor Fig. 11.4. Thermistors "ty Trt oTC) types. Temperature coefficient of a material can be defined as change in resistance oferty for a unit degree change in temperature. Although positive temperature coefficients bere oe most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (T.C.) ie., their ans ae &'reases with increasing temperature. The negative T.C. can be as large as several ance jegree Celsius, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in temperature, poe 'd not be observed with an RTD, or thermocouple circuit. é if he relationship between resistance and temperature is assumed to be linear, then: AR =kAT AR = change in resistance \ istorsare divided into negative temperature coefficient (NTC) and positive temperature The ere : i AT = change in temperature > = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance If kis positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called sive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, posistor or sensistor. If kis negative, the resistance es with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NIC) thermistor. atin Advantages + Inexpensive, rugged and reliable. emis sie * Respond quickly. in bape akocils® Disadvantages a sale enpertre ange wadeae ——*-*Sgnal is not linear. * Selfheating.InpusTRIAL AUTOMATION, ak 4 DR 80 C Sensors 4, Fiber Optic Tempers wide accurate and stable remote mea, Coptical-basel tempers oMeonments and in environments having po temperatnies in ha ‘calibration of individual 1 high fm, dear tie fields without the need for ration ual probes and 6 a or ystems measure temperatures fom -200°C to Gam Safely pial omyperatie sr grows, corrosive, and high electro-magnetic lg Munese conditions because their glase-based technology 4% aq interference ancl corrosion. Since there is no need to recalibrate itent Tor and! technician safety is greatly enhanced as the need for their repenteq My Hor ana nated, Probes are made from largely Ron-conductng an jy PO ii high stability and low susceptibility to interferes bles also have a much higher information-canmn h jal, resulting safety, Optical cal ENCE, an if than electrical conductors. YING capaiy ject to interference sensors, operat to field condit gandyetanee mater increased operator ancl are far less sul 11.6.1, Applications of Temperature Sensors These include: HVAC = room, di Motors - overload protection. Electronic circuits - semiconductor protection. yo ~ thermal management, temperature compensation, ; juct, and refrigerant equipment. Electronic assemblies + Process control ~ temperature regulation. ¥ + Automotive - air and oil temperature. t + Appliances » heating and cooling temperature L?, LIGHT SENSORS When light strikes special types of materials, a voltage may be generated, a chang electrical resistance may occur, or electrons may be ejected from the.material surface. As ia ihe light is present, the condition continues, It ceases when the light is turned off. Any of the a conditions may be used to change the flow of current or the voltage in an external circuit and this + V may be used to monitor the presence of the light and to measure its intensity. Some of the commonly used light sensors are discussed below: tt 1, Photoresistors Tee Photoresistors, as their name suggests, are resistors whose resistance is a function of the E amount of light falling on them, Their resistance is very high when no light is present and E significantly lower when they are illuminated. These are also often called Light-dependent Resist0® i (LDRa) (Refer figure 11.5), Photoresistors can be used as light sensors, which can enable robot behaviors such as hiding in the dark, moving toward a beacon, ete. ; etc. j© phoodiod® phe todiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or A Pending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are used both to detect the Presence ee ‘measure light intensity. Most photodiodes consist of semiconductor pn junctions light close to the junction. They 1g OY container designed to collect and focus the ambient ‘i the current therefore is quite small in the an joe ily biased in the reverse, or blocking direction; en ey illuminated, the current is proportional to the amount of light falling on the soci ~~ ; Phorotransistor é 4 second optoelectronic device that conducts current when exposed to light is, the istor. A phototransistor, however, is much more sensitive to light and produces niore erement fora given light intensity that does a photodiode, 118. POSITION SENSORS SN A postion ot linear displacement sensor is a device whose output signal represents the reg ance an object has traveled from a reference point. Types of position displacement sensors are: a + Inductive Sensors sy + Capacitive Displacement Sensors 3 Magnetostrictive Sensor. en fa 1, Inductive Sensors These sensors measure inductance variations caused by movement of a flux-concentrating dknent. They are probably the most versatile of all position sensors, with a wide range of alin! operating characteristics. Inductive sensors are contact-free, inherently robust, and have infinite Ht ston with high repeatability. They are often used where long-term reliability is important, aise paticularly in harsh and hostile environments. There are two basic types of inductive sensors: ae (i) Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) _. @) Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION any O80) DT): Linear Variable Ditferen; S Ciel tonsduce thot cn convert the yc type of electrons nanically into a corresponding electrical s oo ec Sue consists of three elements: re © One primary winding + Two identical secondary windings «A movable magnetic armature or “core . ») Prima 8 ‘Secondary Fig. 11.6. Design of LVDT With excitation of the primary coil, induced voltages will appear in the secondary ogg Because of the symmetry of magnetic coupling to the primary, these secondary induced Voltages gi are equal when the core is in the central (“null” or “electric zero”) position. When the secondary if coils are connected in series opposition, as shown in the figure, the secondary voltages willcaney and (ideally) there will be no net output voltage. ee If, however, the core is displaced from null position, in either direction, one secondary Voltage on will increase, while the other decreases. Since the two voltages no longer cancel, a net oy tt yor voltage will now result. The difference in induced voltages produces an output thatis inayat proportional in magnitude to the displacement of the core. a gu Advantages a Relative low cost due to its popularity. Solid and robust, capable of working in a wide variety of environments. No friction resistance, since the iron core does not contact the transformer coils, resulting. in an infinite (very long) service life. Short response time, only limited by the inertia of the iron core and the rise time of the amplifiers. * No permanent damage to the LVDT if measurements exceed the designed range. Disadvantages * The core must contact directly or indirectly with the measured surface, which is not Ate always possible or desirable. However, a non-contact thickness gage can be achieved by including a pneumatic servo to maintain the air gap between the nozzle and te 4. work piece. +Evecrnonic CONTROLS variable Differential Transducer (RVDT); 1) is used to sasssure rolatondl angles pest ansor. Whereas the uses a cylindric wey seme is similar to the LVDT except that it ical iton core, the Ee panaings by monn oF/BanaRS pas Figure 117) y we 7 ; » = Y Bead 4, Capacitive Displacement Sensors Ng Gapacitve sensors detect virtually any material (paper, cardboard, plastic, etc) at an operating ie W giance of up to 10mm. They are also suitable for detection of metallic or fluid objects. They offer mak gghspent no contact sensing at an extremely long life. Capacitive sensors detect an extremely Ma) Meaty of material, primarily non-metallic materials, at close range. Capacitive proximity sensors are designed to operate by generating an electrostatic field and gectng changes in this field caused when a target approaches the sensing face. The sensor's femal workings consist of a capacitive probe, an oscillator, a signal rectifier, a filter circuit and ‘poutput circuit as shown in Figure 11.8. te se A 2 F a eae, Ti ft OT ndtes Probe Oscillator Rectifier Output dads Filter ~ Circuit Fig. 11.8 ei _ Inthe absence of a target, the oscillator is inactive. As a target approaches, it raises the eo .) Pctance of the probe system. When the capacitance reaches a specified threshold, the oscillator 9 ‘activated which triggers the output circuit to change between “on” and “off.” The capacitanceINDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION 4 AND Rog 0 dielectric constant termined by the target's size, and distas ofthe probe system is deter ic constant of target the more incrensey ants to srobe. The larger the the more the target inereases capaciign Thy Bjorter the distance between target and probe, 3, Magnetostrictive Sensor € the change of the resistivity of a material due to etostricive effet etic materials such as iron, nickel, an een fly The magn ve a property of ferromag ‘ ‘ Magnetostition #3 Prop ty Ot pateials change size ancl/or shape. Magnetostriciyg cal energy and vice versa. AS a magnetostrictive yy ater placed in a magnetic eld, these "0 convert magnetic eneTBH At is it exhibits a change in length per unit length. Magne magnetized, it stain jarge number of nickel (or other magnetostrictive material fea oa errangee)infparalle with one edge of 226 laminate attached to the of se brated. A coil of wire is placed around the magneto 8 supplied through the coil of wire, a magneto ti lg process tank or other surface to be vi i is jal. When a flow of electrical curren ied 1 eer trictive material to contract or elongate y e jrereated, This magnetic field causes the magnetos introducing a sound into the surface to be vibrated ensors or Hall-Effect Sensors xt voltages proportional to the strength of a nearby magnetic field gene relatively poor temperature performance, but can be effesinn’ where cost is most important and temperature ig a ments are less than an inch (25 mm), tan, 4, Magnetic Si ‘These produce outpt by a moving magnet. They have used for short-range position sensing issue. Hall sensors work best when move! 11.9. PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS a versatile tool for the measurement of vatiou in or force by converting them to an electric s control and process development in many. 4 effect, which was discovered by Piezoelectric sensors are considered to be processes. These sensors are used to measure stra signal. They are used for quality assurance, proce different industries. Piezoelectric sensors rely on the piezoelect the Curie brothers in the late 19th century. While investigating a number of naturally occuring materials such as tourmaline and quartz, Curie brothers realized that these materials had the ito an electrical output. More specifically, when ability to transform energy of a mechanical input a pressure is applied to a piezoelectric material, it causes a mechanical deformation and a displacement of charges. Those charges ate highly proportional to the applied pressure, 1s are used to sense movement or vibrations in many applications. A rystal, which is typically mechanically coupled to electric materials, an applied electric Piezoelectric sens piezoelectric sensor comp an object that produces a’ mechanical movement. In pi field results in elongations or contractions of the material. These sensors are able to convert electric energy directly into mechanical energy and offer several advantages, such as high actuating resolution, high actuating power and very short response times, while their size is small Piezoelectric sensors are used as transducers because a potential difference is generated when the sensor is subject to a pressure change. The common uses of piezoelectric devices are “buzzets' which produce a buzzing noise when a voltage is applied. The single disadvantage of piezoelectric s that they cannot be used for true static measurements. es a piezoelectric sensors icau ano ELecTRONIC CONTROLS sii __ pRESSURESENSORS jure transducer is a transducer that converts pressure into an analog, electrical signal. 3 ‘here are various types of Pressure transducers, one of the most common is the strain- : amove transducer. The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal is achieved by the en Meformation of sfrain gauges, which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure physi nd wired into a wheatstone bridge configuration. Pressure applied to the pressure fades Produces a deflection of the diaphragm, which introduces strain to the gauges. The ost Produce an electrical resistance change proportional to the pressure. STRAIN GAUGES ey je are several methods Of measuring strain; the most common is with a strain gauge. The _ Ther has been in use for many years and is the fundamental sensing element for many rain a sensors, including pressure sensors, load cells, torque sensors, position sensors, etc, The ! Wain gauges is based on the fact that the resistance of a conductor changes when the __ 5 fis subjected to strain, When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and cond ire the result. Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and strain is defined ae displacement and deformation that occur. The strain gauge is one of the most important ) aide electrical measurement technique applied to the measurement of mechanical quantities ty toot sists of tensile and compressive strain, distinguished by a positive or negative sign. A NY arin gauge js a thin piece of conducting material that may look like as shown in Figure 11.9. x [aes \ a S i s Fig. 119. Strain’ Gauge Rm : leg 11111. Theory of Operation il ‘The operation of the resistance strain gauge is based on the principle, that the electrical ex resistance of a conductor changes when it is subjected to a meclianical. deformation, since the =; tsbtivity changes with a change in length and area. Figure 11.10 shows resistances wire in its original state, and after that subjected to a strain. The stretched wire has higher resistance, as it jg longer and thinner. i eB o le length, Al go> Fig. 11.10INDUSTRIAL ‘The resistance of a conductor can be expressed as: [33 nes where, R is the resistance, p is the material resistivity, L is the length of the conductor, and ‘Ais the cross-sectional area of the conductor, 11.11,2. ‘Types of Strain Gauges ges if i ical or electrical depeng; ‘i be classified as mechanical, optical cal depend, ARE ISeE pean bel their constructional features. Of these electrical strain gq, PO” te eat enn ‘The principle of an electrical strain gauge is based upon the Measuremeng — Se changes in resistance, capacitance, or inductance that is proportional to the strain trang from the object to the basic gauge element. Some of the commonly used strain gauges arg qetey —! below: 'B Upon, are 1. Resistance Strain Gauges ‘The resistance of an electrically conductive material changes with dimensional gy.” which take place when the concluctor is deformed elastically. When such a material ssa the conductors become longer and narrower, which causes an increase in resistance, 4 Wheatstong bridge then converts this change in resistance to an absolute voltage. The resulting yao”! linearly related to strain by a constant called the gauge factor. pe 2. Capacitance Strain Gauges Capacitance devices, which depend on geometric features, can be used to measure strain. The Mi capacitance of a simple parallel plate capacitor is proportional to: ss ea y t where, C is the capacitance, N a is the plate area, fs k is the dielectric constant, and p i it f is the separation between plates a The capacitance can be varied by changing the plate area, a, Properties of the materials used to form the capacitor strain gauge materials can be chosen to meet the mechat to be more rugged, providing a significant Ls or the gap t. The elected gj are relatively unimportant, so Capacitance is nical requirements. This allows the gauges advantage over resistance strain gauges. ee 9. Photoelectric Strain Gauges B = a extensometer (an apparatus with mechanical levers attached to the specimen) is used to Plify the movement of a specimen. A beam of light is passed through a variable sit actuated . _9 Evecraonic CONTROLS Bes gst ral and directed to a photoelectric cell. As the gap opening changes, the amount a. ote aril varies, causing a varying intensity in the eetar anes the cell. 1a. a pes COE . aie tric materials, such as crystalline quartz, a change in the electronic charge across i ‘occurs when the material is mechanically stressed. The piezoresistive effect ces of he Conange in resistance of a material due to an applied stress and this term is used ed 35 ‘gon with semi conducting materials, The resistivi i i . penny %e oe ai to the product of the electronic charge, the mie EF oe, ma a 3 =) - rei The effec ‘of applied stress is to change both the number and average : cari eat Saree ae es : ty i oe rea of a Good Strain Gauge \ Fe pall size ard ass \ ase of production over a range of sizes. | __,, Robustness. se : seabiity repeatability and linearity over large strain range. : Good sensitivity Freedom from (or ability to compensate for) temperature effects and other environmental Sy * conditions. ‘ «. suitability for static and dynamic measurements and remote recording «Low cost. Se foe > MICROPROCESSOR 112. ‘ icroprocessors are regarded as one of the most important devices in our everyday machines mputers. A microprocessor (abbreviated as HP or uP) is a computer electronic component ed transistors on a single semiconductor integrated circuit (IC). OR Microprocessor is an electronic circuit that functions as the central processing, unit (CPU) of called " sade from miniaturiz computer, providing computational control ‘he microprocessor communicates and operates in the binary numbers 0) and 1, called bits. Fach microprocessor has a fixed set of instructions in the form of binary patterns called a machine | A microprocessor is a single integrated circuit. The Integrated Circuit is a complex colldtion of very small electronic components organized into a circuit that controls the ‘on’ and ‘off switches of the computer. The circuit is referred to as integrated because all of the components that need to work together are etched into a single silicon chip. The microprocessor processes instructions and communicates with outside devices, controlling most of the operation of the computer. The microprocessor usually has a large heat sink attached to it. Some microprocessors: come ina package with a heat sink and a fan included as a part of the package. Microprocessors i aealso used in other advanced electronic systems, such as computer printers, automobiles, and vaese airliners ieInUSTRIAL AUTOMATION. a my oe NO Row ‘Microprocessors are classified i f their design (rp i by the semiconductor technology o! ca logic; CMOS, Se echo maonide semiconductor; or ECL, emitteregy, Sito, transistor logic; , Soupled i by the width of,the data Bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit) they process, i t bit, S-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or ey Process; aid Ogi) See iaeteet computer, or RISC, reduced instruction et by the erent cal used, while CMOS is favored! for portable computers PM), TL technolo8y I pices because ofits ow power consumption. ECL. is used where tre fe eae ree Gffsets the fact that it consumes the most power: Figure 11.11 shows the Peet f it 4 microprocessor. intel. pentium’ 4 Fig. 11.11. Pentium-4 Microprocessor 11.12. The first digital computers were built in the 1940's using bulky relay and vacuy switches. Relays had mechanical speed limitations, Vacuum tubes required considerable powe dissipated a significant amount of heat, and suffered high failure rates. In 1947, Bel Laborer invented the transistor, which rapidly replaced the vacuum tube as a computer switch for seer, reasons, including smaller size faster switching speeds, lower power consumption and dissipation and higher reliability. In the 1960s Texas Instruments invented the integrated circuit allowing a single silicon chip to contain several transistors as well as their interconnections. History of Microprocessors im-tube The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, produced in 1971. Originally developed for calculator, and revolutionary for its time, it contained 2,300 transistors on a 4-bit microprocesor that could perform only 60,000 operations per second. The first 8-bit microprocessor was the Intel 8008, developed in 1972 to run computer terminals. The Intel 8008 contained 3,300 transistor: The first truly general-purpose microprocessor, developed in 1974, was the 8-bit Intel 8080, which contained 4,500 transistors and could execute 200,000 instructions per second. By 1989, 32-bit microprocessors containing 1.2 million transistors and capable of executing, 20 million instructions per second had been introduced Developed during the 1970s, the microprocessor became most visible as the central proces of the personal computer. 11.12.2. Layout of a Microprocessor System The microprocessor system consists of three main components as shown in Figure 1.12 * Central proc * Memory ¢ Input/Output we et anc* won? "e contral Processing Unit 2 teu Output ALU Registers mein A tp System Bus | Coninol aaa Fig, 11.12. Layout of Microprocessor ponents will work together or interact with each other to perform a given three com : hese UG joes are used to interconnect these components, sk pifferen" central Processing Unit (CPU) " y cuis called the brain of the microprocessors. The CPU consists of Sy ', Arithmetic Logic Unit BR cout Ut ty oy + Registers la ‘ fo Arithmetic Logic Unit: The ALU performs basic arithmetical calculations (addition, iy 4 praetor, multiplication and division) and logic functions (AND, OR, EXCLUSIVE OR, etc). eu ste a urdarental building block ofthe central processing unit (PU) of a computer. The ‘ ® ries out these operations in the following manner: ALU caries Ps is ) 's Stores data fetched from memory or I/O in the registers. ma «Send this data either to its arithmetic circuitry or logical circuitry, where the necessary i) arithmetic or logical operations are carried out. aig «Send results of its arithmetic or logical operation to relevant accumulator, to the memory, tial or to the 1/O interfaces “chy (®) Control Unit: The control unit is the part of the microcomputer that controls its basic Bnd operations. It is made up of the control signal generating circuitry (clock) and the command (instruction) decoder. ‘The control section fetches pre-programmed instructions from memory as isthe, needed and temporarily stores them in the command register (also known as Instruction Register yf Thee instructions are then decoded by the operation decoder, which sends control signals fothe relevant parts of the microcomputer system (via the system busses) to cause them to carry out he required operation. The clock determines the timing with which these control signals are generated. wnt Fi (c) Registers: When the processor executes instructions, data is temporarily stored in registers. Depending on the type of processor, the overall number of registers can vary from about ten to many hundred. These registers are used to store data temporarily, either 8-bit data or 16-bit data acorting to their size. Registers are given names, normally an alphabet, such as A, B, C, D, E, _ HyLand each capable of storing an 8 bit data. These registers can also work as a pait, such as BC, DEand HL and capable of storing 16 bit data. : y: INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION Ay, 266 Rotary } used as the Accumulator, where the result afte, ; For 16 bit operations, register pair HL way Aly dd to store the status of CPU, gill be For all 8-bit operations, register A is operation will be stored automatically here: Regi Dit register use = to store the result. Register F is an 8-bit si a aioe eee ich as od : thers are 16 bi i a a _ have the following registers: "Y Adee which stores the results of arithmetic and logical op, zero, parity, overflow etc. The 0! A very simple microprocessor ™ © Accumulator Register, ‘© Program Counter, which det to be executed. + Instruction Register, which, hold th + Memory Data Register, which holds the data that was last read from oy wt memory. «© Memory Address Register, which holds currently being accessed. fermines in which sequence the program instruc RS, are last instruction, fetched from memory the address of the data oF the ins ‘ction, 2. Memory i r systems have some memor} 3 ate Bare cd aaa programs and data for the microprocessor. The nent of 2 types: * Read Only Memory (ROM) + Random Access Memory (RAM) (a). Read Only Memory (ROM): It is used to store programs and data that need not tobe altered, ie., permanent storage. The CPU can only read programs and data stored in ROMs, The monitor program is normally stored in the ROM. (b) Random Access Memory (RAM): It is used to store user programs and data, and can be altered at any time, ie., temporary storage. The information stored in RAM can be easily read and altered by the CPU. The contents (data or programs) stored is lost if power supply to this chip is turned off. There are different kinds of random-access memory. Static RAM (SRAM) holds information as long as power is turned on and is usually used as cache memory because it operates very quickly. Another type of memory, dynamic RAM (DRAM), is slower than SRAM and must be periodically refreshed with electricity or the information it holds is lost. DRAM is more economical than SRAM and serves as the main memory element in most computers. y. Memory is the term for various 3. Input/Output The input/output unit allows the microprocessor to communicate with the outside world, either to receive or to send data. Most of the time, the input/output unit will also act as an interface for the microprocessor i, to convert the data into a suitable format for the microprocessor Input devices are devices that input data or send data to the computer. Input devices are such as keyboard, punched card readers, sensors, switches, etc. Output devices are devices that output data or ‘perform various operations under the control of the CPU. Output devices are LEDs, display unit, speaker, CRT, printer etc. ) )crRONIc CONTROLS wo Ete! . 267 IF erconnections are known as buses because the wires. The buses are of three types: ¥ contain a large number of Control BUS ond data to memory or rec us can send y or receive data fi e Ce ‘The control bus is usedl to make sure ade ae eee \ oni draocelving Hing signals enc 88 bus carries ever . erything, works in the correct sequence 4) ow ; \ 5, Classifcaion of Microprocessors 125+ SAW eonasal a sre aiferent PES of microprocessors used most frequently are as follows: steno BS Be erg ccesor sre mannachae by Intel Corporation, the world’s leading manufacturer \ Currently, the majority of the world’s pei Se exot y, tl vy of the world’s personal computers a \ ore ors. Intel family of microprocessors include: SS ale it Sera (a) 4004 (4970): These are the first general-purpose microprocessor. The 4004 processor, itd in a hand-held calculator built by Busicom of Japan, was part of a four-chip set “Ne railed the 4000 family. s es Ny 008 (1972): The 8008 increased the 4004’s word length from four to eight its, and » ) Soubied the volume of information that could be processed i . © 8080 (4974): The 8080 were 20 times as fast as the 4004 and contained twice as many ag transistors. Mets (omy 8088 (19792: Created as a cheaper version of Intel’s 8086, the 8088 was a 16-bit processor i with an 8-bit external bus. inal fe) 10286 (1982): With 16 MB of addressable memory and 1 GB of virtual memory, this ae 16-bit chip is referred to as the first “modern” microprocessor. 5) a eq pentium (1993): Adding systems-level characteristics to enormous raw compute power, iis the Pentium supports demanding 1/O, graphics and communications intensive applications with more than 3 million transistors. (@ Pentium Pro (1995): The newest Pentium has dynamic instruction execution and other performance-enhancing, features such as a large 12 cache in the chip package, in ih ene E a it vibe addition to its more than 5.5 million transistors. irise (i) Pentium IT (1997): The 7.5 million-transistor Pentium II processor incorporates Intel rok MMXTM technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio and graphics tit data efficiently. ut de® { Celeron (1999) Continuing Intel’s strategy of developing processors for specific market BS BY ping PI eo PC market segment. It segments, the Intel Celeron processor 1S designed for the value and it delivers excellent provides consumers great performance at an exceptional value, performance for uses such as gaming and educational software. ~~ ee EEEINDUSTRIAL AUTONATION ay ium TIT processor features 70 new inst @ Pentium Ut an Hy oi Internet experiences, allowing userg gett designed oun Through realistic online museums and stores and lovato Sh e y , quality vieteo. ‘Neh, jr Microprocessors — oS “Voit microprocessor was the first general-purpose microprocessoringgy Enno el 4008, ‘a bit design, was the grandfather of microprocessors, Inne on the market, The Het originally designed for @ Japanese manufacturer as the dig meee et Jeulators it was not designed as a general-purpose computer. The g eng Seat. aaearaor tas soon as it was introxtuced. But it was the first general ie eres tnd coe st Se to be placed on the market, The 4004 was the world’s fist Hite , computing device on a fe microprocessor. vers) ‘ 7 3. Intel (8-Bit Microprocessors) a ' i successor to Intel’s 8008, was the first powerful mig OF ‘The 8080, designed as a successor te aus * Pow introduced in the market, The 8080 is still sold today though it has been largely ecipeed ie successor products—most notably the 8085 microprocessor. Today, the 8085 accounts for roy r, P ighly one of every four §-bit microprocessors sold. ly 11.12.4. Applications of Microprocessors Microprocessors are utilized in computer systems ranging from notebooks computers. tosmall ? i personal computers to supercomputer-class workstations. Programs include word Processing os electronic mail, spreadsheets, animation, graphics, and database pri ing. Owing to their low ol cost and flexibility, microprocessors appear in many everyday household products, such a¢ microwave ovens, handheld electronic games, washing machines, programmable videocassette fH recorders (VCRs), and programmable thermostats. Newer cars incorporate microprocessor controlled. ! ignition and emission systems to improve engine operation, increasing fuel economy while reducing pollution. ¢ 11.13. MICROCONTROLLER , " Microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer on a chip. Micro suggests that the device is small, and controller tells that the device might be used to control objects, processes, or events. Another term to describe a microcontroller is embedded controller, because the microcontroller and is support circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control. It is a typeof microprocessor emphasizing self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast to a microprocessot In addition to all arithmetic and logic elements 9f a microprocessor, the microcontroller usually k also integrates additional elements such as read-only and read-write memory, and input/output & interfaces. h Microcontrollers are frequently used in automatically controlled products and devices, sch as automobile engine control systems, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys BY reducing the size, cost, and power consumption compared to a design using a sepatal® jy microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical © jy electronically control many more processes. & aitguecraonic CONTROLS 269 jffers from a microprocessor in m; i on dee for a microprocessor to be eae ee ie bhoobintportant ality ceiving and sending data must be added to it. On the Hes apes pes tie that in one. No other external components are needed ve poaes peripherals are already built into it. Thus, the time and apace oni seeg saved. A microcontroller is a specialized form of a ween to ufficient and cost-effective, whereas a microprocessor is typically foe a fst a ae {he kind used in a PC). 1 es of a Microcontroller jcrocontrollers are orbs ded inside some other device (often a consumer product) so trol the features or actions of the p ni they can cont is of the product. Mic Ee aro icrocontroller are also 2 called em" : : dedicated to one task and ' by |, Microcontrollers are ind run one specific program. The program My \ eared in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not change. Pe \ sjierocontrollers are often low-power devices : ‘a mierocontoller has a dedicated input device and often (but not always) has a small {aD oF LCD display for output. A microcontroller also takes input from the device it Leontrolling and controls the device by sending signals to different components in the wi, device. ; hy matt oo. Applications of Microcontroller 5 eal 4 3 are found in all kinds of things these days. Any device that measures, stores, ; Microcontrollet J eee ini calculates, or displays information is a candidate for putting a microcontroller inside. Mg Re ff the common applications are: if a «In automobiles: Just about every car manufactured today includes at least one microcontroller for engine control, and often more to control additional systems in the car. + Indesktop computers: Microcontrollers are found inside keyboards, modems, printers, and other peripherals. SS tl ey « In test equipment: Microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as the ability to PPO ee store measurements, to create and store user routines, and to display messages and 5 the min waveforms. they co + In Consumer products: Cameras, video recorders, compact-disk players. conse pe 11.14, PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) Indigital electronic systems, there are three basic kinds of devices: memory, microprocessors, i rotted and logic. Memory devices store random information such as the contents of a spreadsheet or prea tlabase. Microprocessors execute software instructions to perform a wide variety of tasks such pore’ asrumning a word processing program or video game. Logic devices provide specific functions, 2068% including device-to-device interfacing, data communication, signal processing, data display, timing jes HH" and control operations, and almost every other function a system must perform. =INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION ay ND Ri 4 Oo, cg 270 .d_has become the most the PLC began in the 19708, ani a Bea eerie A promammable logic contollet, also called a PLC Or a bai og Pee ea cart crear ene ctaioment non neal smb Sreeclpment tar ucscan control nelucesconveyor 5) Sr food processing mach sembly lines ete, PLCs are often defined as miniarsor instil computers tha contain ang oitontrol functions. Unlike general-purpose compute ah ments, extended temperature ee the i i arrange! th : designed for multiple inputs and outpy’ : ; oes tikes, Pe ceszence te vibration ancl impact immunity National Electrical Manufacturers Association has defined PLC as ” a digitally operating elegy i, apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of instruction Nf implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmet, for | aap ol through digital or analog input/output modules, various types of machines or process,” Tn a traditional industrial control system, all contro! device according to how the system is supposed to operate, In a PLC system, however, the PLC the wiring between the devices. This is shown in igure 11.13. Thus, instead of being wired direc ly to each other, all equipment the “wiring” connection bet in the PLC’s memory that tells the PLC what's a PLC to provide the wiring connections between sys! supposed to control the operation of a mot tor, tween the devices, The control program is the computer program storey supposed to be going on in the system. The ues = tem devices is called soft wiring, For example, lets assume that a push button is Ina traditional control system, the push button would be wired directly to the motor. Ina PLe system, however, both the push button and the motor would be wired to the PLC instead. Then, the PLC’s control program would complete the electrical circuit between the two, allowing the button to control the motor. : , a Be (In a traditional system, all control devices are wired directly to each other) pic (In a PLC system, all control devices are wired to the PLC) Fig. 11.13 11.141. Components of PLC A PLC consists of two basic sections: the central it (CI wo basic 3 processing unit (CPU) and the input/output interface system. The CPU, which controls all PLC activity, can further be broken ae a processor and memory system. The input/output system is physically connected to field devices Rae oe are wired directly to hee ° Teplaces dH tis wired to the PLC. Then, the control program inside the PLC prow, u es; nic CONTROLS | ano ELECTRO 271 ei ae \d_ provides the interface betw: is ‘sensors, etc.) an 2 ce een the CPU and the inf it pith nd controllable devices (outputs). To operate, the CPU “reads” ina nett weld devices through the use of its input interfaces, and then “executes” or performs vm that has been stored in its memory system. Propra i i ce 1p guage that closely resembles a relay-based rng bah Sa bed : Ss ‘hematic, and are entered log, memory prior f0 operation. Finally, based on the program, the PLC “writes” or the CPO Gevices via the output interfaces, This process, also known as scanning, typical eo me sequence without interruption, and changes only when a Sane Laie rogram. vontrol Proera” gees enematic diagram of PLC is shown in Figure 11.14, The basic components of PLC are: Hy fnput module ¢— SA output module ~~ oe Frocesor \ paMenays ‘ « Power supply ~ Programming device Detachable Programming Device Input <—— Inputs | Processor modu Power ' Intert z lerface Osis Memory. (teeta |e module [> Outputs a Fig. 11.14. Block Diagram showing Components of Programmable Logic Controller 1. The Input/Output Module The input/output (I/O) module is the connections to the industrial processes that are to be cuntrolled. If he CPU can be thought of as the brain of a PLC, then the I/O system can be thought of as the arms and legs. The I/O system is what actually physically carries out the control commands from the program stored in the PLC’s memory. The 1/O system consists of two main parts: * The rack * 1/0 modules The rack is an enclosure with slots in it that is connected to the CPU. Input/Output units are the interfaces between the internal PLC systems and the external x Processes to be monitored and controlled. 1/0 modules are devices with connection terminals to hich the field devices are wired. asan inudlulew foun the interface between the field deyic, ae ‘what op 0 Md {o LIK aecirely Wired to Ite corracesseea ‘This en physic ing clovieus an socxieely ivstatled a alot ih the tack This ereates the physical connection betwelt the Hell equipaiant aid the BLO, AIL of the fold deyiews connected * Inpute i ie sheen that supply d algnallata 1 a PLE. Typical examples of in \ \ rornwnt devices, nit senaans, wvitehes, and Menai : aie avo dovieos that await a signal /data from the PLE to perform their cont apie horn motors, and valven are all good examples of output devices, For example, a bulls and its corresponding, wall awiteh are good examples of everyday in net outputs, The wall awitel tan Input, whieh provicles a signal for the light to turn on Pu lh ia an output, Which waite until the switeh sends a signal before it turns on, Let’, 86g ‘vtoty/awtels etroult that contaire a PLC: tn this situation, both the switch and the but wi 4 Wired to the PLC inatead of to eaeh other, Thus, when the switeh is turn on, the switch Will send itm “turn on” alynal to the PLE Instead of fo the bulb, The PLC will then relay this signal ¢¢ “ bulb, whieh will then hin on INBUSTIIAL AUTOMATION AN Rog, 4 OTieg FLC ean be classified in one of two. Category les; URS are pag Ol functions 2 The Consul Processing Unie The central provoasing unit (CPU) is the part of a programmable controller that rete, dlocoxtes, stores, ant procemies {nformation, It also executes the control program stored in iy PLC's memory, In essence, the CPU Is the “brains” of a programmable controller. It functions much the same way the CPU of a regular computer does, except that it uses special instructing and coding to perform ite functions, The CPU has three parts + The processor + The memory aystem + The power supply The processor ih the section of the CPU that codes, decodes, and computes data The memory system is the section of the CPU that stores both the control program and a from the equipment connected to the PLC, Memory ina PLC memory, whieh is usually stored in EPROM/ROM, and the ope in necens ata stem is divided into the program ng memory. The RAM memory lorage of input and output data The power supply is the section that provides the PLC with the voltage and curre to operate, ry for the operation of the program and the temporary int itneeds 3. Programming Device A The PLE is programmed by means of a programming device. The programming device is usually detachable from the PLC cabinet so that it can be shared between different controllers 11,14.2, Working of PLO A PLC works by continually scanning a program, It cons Figure 1.15, of three steps as shown in .nic CONTROLS ie Euaer no! 273 fib cas So ie Check Input Status + Execute Program hcl esl Updata Output Status Peace ea Fig. 11.45 the PLC takes look at each input to determine if it is on or off. In other words, is the it memory to be used during next step. aa hy A rf \ connected to “ay oe this data into i 1 Brecute Program % next the PLC executes program i.e, one instruction at a time. May be the program says that samt input is on then it should tum on the first output. ince i already knows which inputs sr on/ff from the previous step, it will be able to decide whether the first output should be agg. tamed on based on the state of the first input. It will store the execution results to use later during Beng * the next step. aie 4: Update Output Status Bting}) finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It updates the outputs based on which rae inputs were on during the first step ‘and the results of executing your program during the second pias. Bsed onthe exampre in the step 2, it would now tum on the first output. 11143, PLC Programming PLC programming is done with the help apps poramning languages isto allow the user ‘(Oia a programming device, They all convey to the system, ete contol plan. of special programming languages. The function of to communicate with the programmable controller by means of instructions, a basic and the sequential function chart are the most common le controller system design: Ladder diagrams form are categorized Ladder diagrams, function blocks, ‘ypes of languages encountered in programmabl thetasic PC languages, while function blocks and the sequential function charting wt ¥ of 88 ashigh evel languages. The basic programmable controller languages consist ofa set of instructions ~~ es the first input on? How about the second input? How about the third. ItInpusTRIAL AUTOMATION AND Ro, 8 Song 274 control functions like relay replacement that will perform the most common fyP© of counting, sequencing, and logic. Ladder Logic a .d for PLCs. The ladder i ae : mming method used for PLCs. ler logic dia Ladder logic is the main ae shop personnel who are familiar with circuit aamthis teen found to be Very content oem an entirely new programming language, Modemea®® | uit core traditional programming languages g uh ee % ey c i not req: pier because it does not rede eT ic or in mi can be programmed Jc instruction set that is used to create i jage is a symbolic i a prc p aes pee iadder diagram program is {0 control outputs based a y controller rogram. The used for the control Control rung, in general, consists ofa set gp ett # conditions. Ladder Bae y relay contact-type instructions and an output instruction at the end g p conkitions represented by relay “OnE the rung represented by the coil s ee: : : heh of Te of ladder logic can be seen in Figure 11.16, To interpret this diagram, ima Pee line on the left hand side, we call this the hot rail. On 4 gine that the power is on the vertical n he Hehe hand side is the neutral rail. In the figure there are two rungs, and on each rung there are ¥ combinations of inputs (two vertical lines) and outputs (circles). If the inputs are opened of, closed y in the right combination the power can flow from the hot rail, through the inputs to poverihe * outputs, and finally to the neutral rail. An input can come from a senso switch, or any other Gf censor An output will be some device outside the PLC that is switched on or off, such a light, Gr motors. In the top rung the contacts are normally open and normally closed. Which means i input A is on and input B is off, then power will flow through the output and activate it, Any other combination of input values will result in the output X being off. ' "A Neutral A 8 x oe gi fl c D 5| | Y ve t--H- ry Nae? ’ poe Ee inputs Note: Power needs to flow through some combination of the inputs (A.B,G, D, E, F, GH) to tum on outpuls (X, ¥) Fig, 11.16. A Simple Ladder Logic Diagram ' 11.14.4, Adyantages and Disadvantages of PLC Advantages There are significant advantages in using a programmable logic controller rather tat conventional relays, timers, counters, and other hardware elements. These advantages include:crronic CONTROLS 275 Fe Ete ec fi is \ BE ogea 8 the PLC is easier than wiring the relay control panel. t sigh reliability eae oD ese! Conventional controls must be rewired and are ofte if insteac oe scrapped I \ |. pics take tess floor space then relay control panels. iY Mlge maintenance due t0-nO Moving part \ \ T , nospecial programming skills required by maintenance personnel \ Be computing capabilities. Reduced costs, ‘ sapilty to withstand harsh environments, ' pxpandability. 4. High speed of operation hough the PLC systems have many advantages, there are also disadvantages. These incu: \ systems. + failure of the PLC may completely stop the controlled process, whereas a fault in a conventional control system would only disrupt the process. : \ | pidoaages \ \ sault finding, as PLC systems are often much more complex than the hard-wired relay « External electrical interference may disrupt the PLC memory. 11,145. Applications of PLC PLCs have now become a very convenient tool for flexible automation. Applications of PLC include: * Control of electrical motors in industrial drives. * CNC machines. * Robot control. * Home and medical equipment. ings: © Operation of lifts in buil * Control of traffic signals. * Safety control of presses: REVIEW QUESTIONS 1, Write short notes on “transducer types”. (PTU, May 2006) 2. Distinguish between a transducer and sensor. (PTU, Dec. 2006) 3, Discuss the various types of sensors used for position or displacement (PTU, May 2005, Dec. 2005) t measurement.INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION AND. Rog. gk tol systems a : Be Bec are onion est = a 4. Name any ee FI cpenting priSelc of + ™icoeroceeda wih the no 5, Describe the - ru. pe? of © 7 schematic diagram serearatng devices wsed 10 INkeRTARE MECHANA] gyn 203) Fae ee car eet apy ot mith eviews in detail giving thee appt Dest transducer. Describe the construction ang computer systems: i {esirable features ‘of a good 7. Adentify the TpT with the help of neat sketch. = a Me reraesions of PLC and microprocessors and describe their use in, a Dae ee a see . i troller (PLC). ig) palin a Programmable LOS Como (PTU, Dec. 2002), (PTU, May 2007), (PU, Dee io De. a jrable features of transducers. ru ) jis a sensor? Identify desiral . ae / _ ae an of a neat sketch, describe the working of any piezoelectric sensor. 2002) f a. By m (PTu, i only used microproces Dec. 205, PP 3 12, What are microprocessors? Identify two commonly Processors. PTH, Dee My aa Identify the various components ‘of a PLC. Describe a PLC with the help of a , s chematic eas (PTU, Dee. 209) We 44. Where are PLC employed. ae Ta os 45. Name any three parts required for integration of mec anical system with electrical System, mo ~ 46, Discuss the advantages and limitations of microprocessor based controllers. Vy peeecaendl (PTU, May 2096 e 17. Mention two significant differences between ® microprocessor and a programmable log ie controller. (PTU, De a ; ransducer? ‘ a 418, What are the factors to be considered in selection of a tr ster in a microprocessor? (PTU, Dec2007) . 19. What are the main functions of the A regi 20. What are ports in a microy (PTU, Dec. 2067) processor system? Explain the difference between accening pons Pl Es and memory? 21. Write a short note on thermocouple. Ve 22. What are the main registers and their functions in a microproces 2? (PTU, May 2m8) 8 23. What are programmable logic controllers? Discuss the applications for which these are used. Discuss three significant advantages and disadvantages. (PTU, Dec. 2007) gt 24. What is microcontroller? (PTU, May 205) 25, Explain architecture of a Programmable Logic controller with the help of a neat sketch (PTU, May 20) 26. Distinguish between LVDT and RVDT. : 27. What are the application of microprocessors and PLC? ‘i (PTU, Dec. 2007) 28. Why were ladder diagrams used for programming PLC systems? 29. How transducers can be classified? 30. List the various electric and electronic control elements used in automation. 31. 32. Explain the constructional features of a PLC. 433. List the various electric and electronic control elements used in automation. (PTU, May 200) (PTU, Dec. 2006) Discuss the advantages and limitations of microprocessor-based controllers. (PTU, May 2006) 34. Explain the constructional features of a micro controller. —