2.

1 Routing and Switching Concepts

● Broadcast Domains: All devices in a network segment where a broadcast packet is

forwarded.
○ Routers break up broadcast domains.
● Collision Domains: Network segments where data packets can collide.
○ Switches, bridges, and routers break up collision domains.
● CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): Used in early
Ethernet networks to detect collisions and resend data.
○ CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Used in wireless networks to prevent
collisions before they occur.
● Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast:
○ Unicast: One-to-one communication.
○ Broadcast: One-to-all communication.
○ Multicast: One-to-many communication, but only to interested devices.

2.1 Switches

● Switching Process:
○ Layer 2 Switch: Forwards traffic based on MAC addresses.
○ Layer 3 Switch: Forwards traffic based on IP addresses (acts as a router).
● VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks):
○ Logical separation of networks within the same physical switch.
○ 802.1Q: Standard for VLAN tagging in Ethernet networks.
○ VLANs provide network segmentation, reduce broadcast domains, and improve
security.
● Spanning Tree Protocol (STP):
○ Prevents network loops in Layer 2 switches by creating a spanning tree to block
redundant paths.
○ Rapid STP (RSTP): Faster convergence than standard STP.
● MAC Address Table:
○ Switches maintain MAC address tables to forward frames to the correct port.

2.1 Routing

● Routing Table: Determines the path to send a packet based on IP address.

○ Static Routing: Manually configured routes, no automatic updates.
○ Dynamic Routing: Routes automatically updated using protocols (RIP, OSPF,
EIGRP, etc.).
● Routing Metrics:
○ Metrics such as hop count, bandwidth, delay, and reliability are used to choose
the best route.
● Administrative Distance (AD):
 ○ Determines the trustworthiness of a routing source (lower AD is preferred).

2.2 Routing Protocols

● Distance-Vector Routing Protocols: Determines the best path based on the number of
hops to a destination.
○ RIP (Routing Information Protocol): Simple, limited by hop count (15 max).
● Link-State Routing Protocols: Builds a complete map of the network by sharing link
state information.
○ OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): Uses link-state advertisements (LSAs) to
build a network topology.
○ IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System): Similar to OSPF, used in
large networks.
● Hybrid Routing Protocols:
○ EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): Combines features of
both distance-vector and link-state protocols.
● BGP (Border Gateway Protocol):
○ Path-vector protocol used for routing between autonomous systems (the internet
backbone).

2.3 IP Addressing

● IPv4 Addressing: 32-bit addresses represented in dotted decimal format.

○ Classes: A, B, C, D (multicast), E (reserved).
● Subnetting: Dividing an IP address space into smaller segments.
○ Subnet Mask: Determines the network and host portion of an IP address.
○ CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing): Allows for flexible subnetting (e.g.,
/24, /16).
● VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masking): Allows different subnet sizes within the
same network.
● IPv6 Addressing: 128-bit addresses, represented in hexadecimal format.
○ Provides a vastly larger address space and simplified addressing.
○ Types:
■ Unicast: One-to-one.
■ Anycast: Delivered to the nearest node in a group.
■ Multicast: Delivered to multiple nodes.
● IPv6 Address Components:
○ Global Unicast Address: Globally routable.
○ Link-Local Address: Used for local communication (prefix FE80::).
○ Unique Local Address (ULA): Private addresses (FC00::/7).

2.4 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

● DHCP Process:
 ○ DORA: Discover, Offer, Request, Acknowledge.
○ DHCP dynamically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network.
● DHCP Leasing:
○ Addresses are leased to clients for a specified period.
○ DHCP Reservation: A specific IP address is reserved for a particular device.
● APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing):
○ Used when DHCP server is unavailable (169.254.x.x).

2.5 NAT (Network Address Translation)

● NAT: Translates private IP addresses to public IP addresses for communication over the
internet.
○ SNAT (Static NAT): One-to-one mapping between private and public IPs.
○ PAT (Port Address Translation): Many-to-one mapping, uses port numbers to
differentiate connections.
● NAT Benefits:
○ Conserves public IP addresses.
○ Provides a layer of security by hiding internal IPs.

2.6 Port Forwarding and Network Services

● Port Forwarding: Redirects traffic from one port to another on a different IP.
○ Useful for accessing services on private networks (e.g., web server, FTP).
● DNS (Domain Name System):
○ Resolves domain names to IP addresses.
○ Types:
■ A Record: Maps a domain to an IPv4 address.
■ AAAA Record: Maps a domain to an IPv6 address.
■ MX Record: Mail exchange server for email.
■ CNAME Record: Alias for another domain.
● Load Balancing: Distributes network traffic across multiple servers.
○ Types:
■ Round Robin: Distributes traffic sequentially.
■ Weighted: Traffic based on server capacity.

2.7 Firewalls and Security Concepts

● Firewall Types:
○ Packet-Filtering Firewall: Filters traffic based on IP addresses, ports, and
protocols.
○ Stateful Inspection Firewall: Monitors the state of active connections.
○ Proxy Firewall: Intercepts and forwards requests on behalf of clients.
● ACLs (Access Control Lists):
○ Define rules for allowing or blocking traffic.
 ○ Can be based on IP addresses, protocols, and port numbers.
● DMZ (Demilitarized Zone):
○ An area between the internal network and the internet where public-facing
servers are placed.

2.8 VPN (Virtual Private Network)

● VPN: Encrypts traffic over a public network for secure communication.

○ Types:
■ Site-to-Site VPN: Connects two or more networks.
■ Remote Access VPN: Allows individual users to connect securely.
● VPN Protocols:
○ IPSec (Internet Protocol Security): Provides encryption and security for IP
traffic.
○ SSL VPN: Uses Secure Sockets Layer to encrypt traffic.

2.9 VoIP (Voice over IP)

● VoIP: Transmits voice communication over IP networks.

○ SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): Manages VoIP calls.
○ RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol): Transmits audio and video over IP
networks.
● QoS (Quality of Service): Prioritizes voice traffic to ensure high-quality communication.