The Vermont Connection
Volume 35 (Re)creating New Domains: The Article 12
Future of Higher Education
January 2014
Black Identity Development
Keyiona Ritchey
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Ritchey, K. (2014). Black Identity Development. The Vermont Connection, 35(1).
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Ritchey • 99
Black Identity Development
Keyiona Ritchey
The purpose of this literature review is to discuss the stages of Black
identity development among Black students in higher education at-
tending predominantly White institutions (PWIs). I explore the dif-
ferent stages of Nigrescence, which is the process of becoming Black
(Cross, 1991). Research on Black identity development is critical for
student affairs professionals because it can serve as a foundation to
help understand different developmental processes that Black students
may experience in college. Ultimately, competency in Nigrescence can
help influence how student affairs professionals help support Black
students as they learn to navigate their racial identity in college. Ad-
ditionally, student affairs professionals can help aid in persistence and
retention efforts made by colleges.
Higher Education
Student affairs professionals should understand the different dynamics of Black
identity development and the ways it might play out on college campuses when
working with students from diverse backgrounds. Identity conflict is largely
responsible for a significant number of early departures from a college campus
(Harper & Quaye, 2007). It is important to keep in mind that every student is at
different stages in their developmental process. Support might look different for
every student. Institutions of higher education have come a long way in terms of
multicultural competency. Nonetheless, there is still progress to be made. I will
explore Black identity development among Black students attending predominantly
White institutions (PWIs) and the implications for student affairs professionals. I
use Black identity development and Nigrescence interchangeably.
Applying to and being accepted to college is something many American youth
excitedly anticipate. Transitioning to college is a significant life change for young
Keyiona Ritchey is a 2nd year HESA student. She is the graduate assistant for study abroad
in the Office of International Education. She received her B.A. from California State Uni-
versity Dominguez Hills with a major in Human Services and a minor in Africana Studies.
Her passions are in racial identity development, education abroad, and helping students with
non-dominant identities navigate higher education.
100 • The Vermont Connection • 2014 • Volume 35
adults. It is typically the first time young adults are living away from home and
gaining a sense of independence. Magolda (2001) expressed that “higher education
has a responsibility to help young adults make the transition from their socializa-
tion by society to their role as members and leaders in society’s future” (p. 25).
College is a place where young adults learn how to positively contribute to society.
Since higher education is tasked with socializing young adults to be productive
members of society, this transformation looks different for each student based
on their racial identity. Therefore, it is critical for student affairs professionals to
understand the different dynamics of Black identity development.
Racism significantly impacts racial identity development in the United States.
Adams (2005) stated that
Race is the sharpest and deepest division in American life, and because of
the long standing divide, achieving equal access to and benefits from institu-
tions of higher education has been an ongoing struggle for people of color
in general, but particularly for African Americans. (p. 285)
College is where young adults begin to question their identity and explore the
question of “who am I?” (Magolda, 2001, p. 4). Black students attending PWIs
can face racism, isolation, sociocultural challenges, and academic obstacles (Harper
& Quaye, 2007). In addition, Black students become aware of the implications
of what it means to be Black during college among their White peers. For Black
students attending college, Bakari (1997) stated that “a positive racial identity helps
create a positive attitude and confidence in one’s ability, therefore, a positive racial
identity is critical for the academic success and personal development of African
American students” (p. 1). Therefore, it is critical for student affairs professionals
to be knowledgeable in Black identity development since a positive racial identity
is linked to academic and personal success. This ultimately contributes to Black
students graduating and being productive members of society.
Why Are All The Black Kids Sitting Together?
When Black students do not fit into the mainstream culture they tend to group
with other people who look like them for support. Tatum (1997) said that
joining with one’s peers for support in the face of stress is a positive coping
strategy. What is problematic is that the young people are operating with very
limited definitions of what it means to be Black, based largely on cultural
stereotypes. (p. 62)
Black students “sit at the same table” (p. 62) because it is comfortable for them.
They face challenges in a setting where they stand out and “academic success
is often associated with being White” (p. 62). Tatum (1997) acknowledged that
students seek support from what is comfortable to them. As a result “Black stu-
dents turn to each other for the much needed support they are not likely to find
anywhere” (p. 60) in order to persevere and graduate.
Ritchey • 101
Bakari (1997) argued that PWIs often fail to meet the challenges of cross cultural
student development for Black students. They continue to operate under the
melting pot theory, where everyone is expected to fit into the mainstream White
middle class value structure. This creates barriers and a climate that is not con-
ducive for students whose identities fall outside of being White and middle class.
Reflecting on her experiences as a student bell hooks (1994) recounted “I know
from personal experience as a [Black woman] student in a predominantly white
institution how easy it is to feel shut out or closed down” (p. 86).
Negative stereotypes about Black culture are imposed upon Black students. Ste-
reotypes from the media are one way people acquire knowledge regarding Black
culture. According to Adams (2005), “Black students are seldom exposed to
scholarly work related to the Black experience and must construct their young adult
racial identities from the raw and flawed racial stereotypes perpetuated in the media
and popular culture” (p. 285). In and outside the classroom, Black students have
to combat negative stereotypes about their race and culture directly or indirectly.
This can have a negative impact on their academic and personal success.
Nigrescence
William Cross developed Nigrescence theory in 1971, a theory considered the
seminal Black racial identity development model (Vandiver, Cross, Worrell &
Fhagen-Smith, 2002). When Cross wrote about Nigrescence in 1971, he referred
to it as “an identity change process as a Negro-to-Black conversion experience, the
kind of process that could be seen in Black behavior during the Harlem Renais-
sance” (Cross, 1991, p. 189). Cross (1991) re-considered the theory as a resocial-
izing experience, one that transforms a preexisting identity (e.g., non-Afrocentric
identity) to one that is Afrocentric. Benjamin, Constantine, Richardson, and
Wilson (2000) interpreted Nigrescence as the developmental process of becom-
ing Black, an explanation of the Black identity and consciousness process for
Black Americans. Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, and Renn (2010) stated, “Cross
introduced a five stage Nigrescence model, but in 1991 he condensed it to four
stages” (p. 256) combining stages four and five. I reviewed the original five stages.
Pre-encounter (stage 1) depicts the identity to be changed; Encounter (stage 2)
isolates the point at which the person feels compelled to change; Immersion-
Emersion (stage 3) describes the vortex of identity change; and Internalization
and Internalization-Commitment (stages 4 and 5) describe the habituation and
internalization of the new identity.
Pre-Encounter Stage
Persons in the pre-encounter stage hold attitudes that range from low salience
to race neutrality to anti-Black (Cross, 1991). Little emphasis is given to race in
102 • The Vermont Connection • 2014 • Volume 35
this stage and people focus on other aspects of their lives including occupation,
lifestyle, and religion as more salient. People do not acknowledge race as some-
thing that has affected their lives thus far. There are some Black people for whom
being Black is very important, and there are some Black people who can hold an
extreme attitude of anti-Blackness. Cross (1991) stated that “anti-Blacks loath
other Blacks; they feel alienated from them and do not see Blacks or the Black
community as potential or actual sources of personal support” (p. 191). Typically
this stage occurs when someone does not realize that they have been raised with
White westernized ideologies, because it is so embedded in their culture. Cross
(1991) said that “persons have frequently been socialized to favor a Eurocentric
cultural perspective” (p. 193).
Encounter Stage
People in the encounter stage must work around, slip through, or even shatter
the relevance of their ideology and worldview. At the same time, others must
provide some hint of direction in which to point the person to be resocialized or
transformed (Cross, 1991). The encounter stage encompasses two steps, encounter
and personalize. In the encounter step, an event happens that shapes how one
views their race. Personalize occurs when an individual takes action as a result of
the personal impact the event evoked on that person’s world view. Cross (1991)
pointed out that the encounter “need not to be negative” (p. 197) for the event
to have impact and steer a person towards Nigrescence. What matters is that the
encounter has a personally significant impact to be the catalyst to spur change in
their thinking.
Immersion-Emersion Stage
The immersion-emersion stage of Nigrescence addresses the most sensational
aspect of Black identity development, for it represents the vortex of psychological
Nigrescence (Cross, 1991). It is during this stage that Black people will begin to
shed their old worldview and construct a new frame of reference with the infor-
mation they now have about race. The person has not yet changed, but commits
to change. Cross (1991) said that “immersion is a strong powerful dominating
sensation that is constantly energized by rage [at White people and culture], guilt
[at having once been tricked into thinking Black ideas], and developing a sense of
pride [in one’s Black self, Black people, and Black culture]” (p. 203).
A sense of rage that is part of the immersion-emersion stage can be a catalyst
for Black students to seek out history, art, and music that represent a culture they
never knew existed. Cross (1991) stated that “a paradox conversion is that while
rebelling against the larger society, the new convert may willingly conform to the
demands for Black organizations” (p. 205). It is critical for PWIs to have safe
Ritchey • 103
spaces for Black students to feel comfortable in, as they navigate aspects of their
identity that may be new to them. Harper and Quaye (2007) noted that many
racial and ethnic minority students find themselves either subverting their identity
to become involved in the mainstream culture or assimilating as they struggle to
maintain a strong cultural connection to their racial identity. Connecting with
others through a student organization or safe space can help aid in the support
Black students may need to be successful in and outside of the classroom.
According to Vandiver et al., (2002), Black people can feel a variety of different
emotions expressed in different ways.
If Blacks accepted being Black then, they were assumed to be psychologically
healthy and to have a high self esteem. In contrast Blacks who accepted the
values of White society were believed to suffer from self hatred and, as a
result, low self-esteem. (p. 71)
Societal constructions disadvantage Black people through overt and covert forms
of institutionalized racism. During the immersion stage, Black people decompress
all the negative stereotypes associated with being Black, and view being Black
through a different lens. Cross (1991) noted “emersion, an emergence from the
emotionality and dead end, either/or, racist and oversimplified ideologies of the
emergence experience (p. 207). During this time Black people are leveling off,
which is facilitated by personal growth and the recognition that certain role models
or heroes operate from a more advance state of identity development (Cross, 1991).
Internalization Stage
Internalization encompasses a transition period where one is working through
the challenges and problems of a new identity (Cross, 1991). During this time
people move away from how others view them to how they view themselves.
Cross (1991) stated “the internalization marks the point of dissonance resolution
and reconstruction of ones steady state personality and cognitive style” (p. 220).
Black people begin to think critically about their new found racial identity and how
it has shaped their life. As a result they embrace what it means to be Black and
have Black self-love that they exude into the universe. Most importantly, “Black
identity functions to fulfill the self protection, social anchorage, and bridging
needs of the individual” (p. 220).
Internalization-Commitment Stage
Internalization-commitment focuses on the long-term interest of Black affairs
over an extended amount of time (Cross, 1991). This stage is now combined
with internalization. Cross (1991) explained that “consequently other than to
repeat what has already been said about internalization a more differential look
at internalization-commitment awaits the results of future research” (p. 220).
104 • The Vermont Connection • 2014 • Volume 35
According to Benjamin et al. (1998), Black identity development model helps
“Blacks begin to shed a poor self worth and move toward embracing a positive
Black self definition” (p. 96). This is the ultimate transformation, taking place
when someone achieves a healthy racial identity. Racism, domination, and privilege
are interwoven into society. As a result, “racism and race related stress may be
experienced at the cultural, individual and institutional levels” (Johnson & Arbona,
2006, p. 1). This can be experienced by Black people as well as other people with
subordinate identities, which is why having a healthy racial identity is important
for all students, no matter someone’s race. According to Benjamin et al. (1998):
Healthy racial identity development is achieved when Blacks progress through
a series of linear stages commencing with degrading thoughts and feelings
about themselves and other Blacks accompanied by idealized beliefs about
Whites, and ends with internalized positive feelings about themselves, other
Blacks, and other racial groups. (p. 96)
Conclusion
Black identity development involves going through stages simultaneously. Black
people begin with less awareness about their Black identity then progress to inter-
nalize positive thoughts, not only about themselves as a Black person, but about
other racial groups as well. In addition, not only do people become aware of the
historical ramifications about what it means to be Black, they also put thoughts
and ideas into action to help educate and uplift the Black community.
Utilizing Cross’s (1991) Nigrescence theory can help put into context the issues
that can happen developmentally with a Black student regarding their racial identity
in college. As institutions of higher education move towards attracting a more
multicultural student population, student affairs professionals should be aware of
the different stages of Black identity development. Competency in Nigrescence
can serve as a reference for student affairs professionals and help assess the impact
of Black students’ relationships with their peers, faculty, and staff. Pope-Davis,
Liu, Ledesma-Jones, and Nevitt (2000) stated that “identification with one’s racial
and cultural group represents a complex process” (p. 101) which does not happen
overnight. It is a process that develops more as students interact with others from
different backgrounds.
Ritchey • 105
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