United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION

Definition of Data:
➢ Data refers to raw facts, figures, or information that can be processed, analyzed, or used for
computation. It can take various forms such as numbers, text, images, audio, or video. Data is
typically meaningless on its own and requires processing to become useful information.
➢ Types of Data:
o Analog Data: Continuous data that varies smoothly over time (e.g., human voice, temperature
readings).
o Digital Data: Discrete data, often represented in binary form (0s and 1s), used in modern
computing and communication systems (e.g., text files, computer programs).

Definition of Data Communication:

➢ Data Communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more devices (such as
computers, phones, or sensors) through a transmission medium (e.g., wired cables, radio waves).
The main objective of data communication is to ensure that data is accurately transferred from the
source to the destination, often over a network.
➢ Key Elements of Data Communication:
1. Sender: The device or entity that originates the data (e.g., a computer, smartphone).
2. Receiver: The device or entity that receives the data (e.g., another computer, server).
3. Transmission Medium: The channel through which data is transmitted (e.g., copper
wire, fiber optics, air for wireless transmission).
4. Message: The data being transmitted (e.g., a file, video, or message).
5. Protocol: A set of rules governing data transmission, ensuring reliable communication
(e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).

Importance of Data Communication:

➢ Sharing Resources: Enables devices to share data and resources (e.g., files, printers, applications)
across local or global networks.
➢ Collaboration: Facilitates communication and collaboration across distances, enabling real-time
exchanges of data (e.g., video conferencing, emails).
➢ Automation and Control: Used in industrial automation, IoT (Internet of Things), and smart devices
to allow machines to communicate and operate autonomously.

In essence, data communication underpins much of modern computing, networking, and

telecommunications.

Fundamental Characteristics of Data Communication

➢ These are the characteristics are essential for reliable, efficient, and high-quality data
communication across various applications and systems.

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United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

➢ Delivery: Ensures the data reaches the correct recipient.

➢ Accuracy: Ensures that data is transmitted without errors.
➢ Timeliness: Ensures data is delivered within an acceptable time frame.
➢ Jitter: Ensures a steady and consistent data flow, minimizing variability.

➢ Bandwidth/Throughput: Ensures sufficient capacity for transmitting data efficiently.

Evolution of Data Communication Systems

The evolution of data communication systems spans over a century, beginning with early telegraphic
systems and progressing through telephone networks, radio, and modern digital communications such
as the internet and wireless technologies. Below is a detailed breakdown of the major milestones in the
evolution of data communication systems:

Early Communication Systems (1830s–1870s)

• Telegraph (1830s):
o Developed by Samuel Morse in 1837, the telegraph was the first widely used communication
system that allowed long-distance transmission of textual messages using Morse code (dots and
dashes).
o It relied on electrical signals sent over a wired network, laying the foundation for future
communication technologies.
o Messages were transmitted one bit at a time and required human operators to encode and
decode the signals.
• Telephone (1876):
o Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876, which allowed two-way voice
communication over electrical wires.
o Unlike the telegraph, the telephone transmitted analog signals (representations of sound
waves) directly, which was an improvement in speed and efficiency for human communication.

Analog Communication Era (1890s–1950s)

• Radio Communication (1895):

o Guglielmo Marconi demonstrated the first successful wireless telegraphy in 1895, sending
signals without the need for physical wires.

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United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

o Radio communication made use of electromagnetic waves to transmit analog signals over long
distances, paving the way for mass broadcasting.
• Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) (Early 1900s):
o The PSTN became the backbone for voice communication across the world, using manual
switching at first and later automatic switching.
o Telephone lines initially carried only voice, but data transmission over these lines (via modems)
became possible later on.
• Television (1920s):
o The development of television added video to the list of analog signals transmitted over long
distances.
o Television broadcasting used the radio spectrum to send video signals, which significantly
impacted mass media and communication.

Birth of Digital Communication (1950s–1970s)

• Early Computers and Networks (1950s):

o The development of mainframe computers and early computing systems like the UNIVAC began
to highlight the need for data communication between machines.
o In 1958, AT&T introduced the first modem, the Bell 101, which could convert digital data into
analog signals for transmission over telephone lines, allowing computers to communicate over
the existing telephone infrastructure.
• Packet Switching (1960s):
o Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently developed the concept of packet switching, which
breaks down data into smaller packets that are transmitted individually and reassembled at the
destination.
o This was a significant shift from the traditional circuit-switched networks (like telephones) and
formed the core of modern internet communication.
• ARPANET (1969):
o ARPANET, developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, was the first operational packet-
switched network and the precursor to the internet.
o It connected four university research centers and demonstrated the feasibility of networking for
data communication between computers.

Development of Internet Protocols and Networks (1970s–1990s)

• Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) (1970s):

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) were developed as part of
ARPANET in the 1970s to standardize communication across different types of networks.
o These protocols allowed for the internetworking of different systems, leading to the creation of
the global internet.
• Ethernet (1973):
o Robert Metcalfe at Xerox PARC developed Ethernet, which became the dominant local area
network (LAN) technology.
o Ethernet allows multiple computers to connect to a common network using a wired or wireless
medium and exchange data via packet switching.
• Cellular Networks (1980s):
o The first cellular mobile networks were developed in the 1980s, starting with 1G (analog) and
later transitioning to 2G (digital) networks like GSM(Global System for Mobile Communications).

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United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

o This transition marked the shift to digital data transmission in mobile communication, allowing
not only voice but also text and data services (e.g., SMS).
• World Wide Web (1990s):
o Tim Berners-Lee developed the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1989, which revolutionized how
information is accessed and shared across the internet.
o The development of HTTP, HTML, and web browsers transformed the internet into a global,
accessible resource for communication, commerce, and entertainment.

Broadband and High-Speed Networks (2000s–Present)

• Broadband Internet:
o The 2000s saw the rise of broadband internet connections, such as DSL (Digital Subscriber
Line), cable modems, and fiber-optic networks.
o Fiber-optic communication, using light to transmit data at incredibly high speeds and with low
attenuation, became the backbone for long-distance and high-speed data transmission.
• Wireless and Mobile Data Networks:
o Wi-Fi (developed in the 1990s) became a standard for local wireless data communication,
enabling devices to connect to networks without wires.
o Cellular networks continued to evolve, with 3G and 4G LTE networks providing faster data rates,
enabling video streaming, online gaming, and high-speed internet on mobile devices.
o 5G networks (2020s) promise ultra-fast speeds, low latency, and support for massive IoT
(Internet of Things) applications.
• Cloud Computing (2000s–Present):
o Cloud computing services (e.g., AWS, Google Cloud, Microsoft Azure) rely on fast internet
connections to provide on-demand computing resources and storage over the internet.
o Data communication plays a crucial role in cloud computing, as users and businesses can access,
store, and process large amounts of data remotely.

Future of Data Communication (Beyond 2020s)

• 6G Networks:
o Expected to follow 5G by 2030, 6G will likely offer even faster data transmission speeds and
enhanced support for advanced technologies like augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR),
and AI.
• Quantum Communication:
o Quantum communication holds the potential for ultra-secure data transmission using principles
of quantum mechanics, such as quantum key distribution (QKD).
• IoT and Smart Devices:
o The ongoing expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT) connects billions of devices globally, from
home automation to industrial applications, all relying on efficient data communication systems.

Prepared by: Er. Mini Madav Khanal

United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

Block Diagram of Digital Communication System

The Digital Communication System Block Diagram illustrates the key components involved in
transmitting digital information from a source to a destination. Here is an overview of the components,
along with a description of each:

Following are the sections of the digital communication system.

a. Information Source
• The origin of the data to be transmitted (e.g. voice, image, video, text).

b. Input Transducer
• This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to an electrical signal (example:
microphone). This block also consists of an analog to digital converter where a digital signal is
needed for further processes.
• A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.

c. Source Encoder
• The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of bits. This process helps in
effective utilization of the bandwidth. It removes the redundant bits (unnecessary excess bits,
i.e., zeroes).

d. Channel Encoder
• Adds redundancy to the data to protect it from errors introduced during transmission.
• Common techniques include Error Detection and Correction Codes (e.g., Hamming code, Reed-
Solomon code).

e. Modulator
• Converts the digital data into a signal suitable for transmission over a physical medium (e.g., air,
fiber optics).

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United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

• The signal can be transmitted as electromagnetic waves or electric pulses depending on the
medium.
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f. Communication Channel (Medium)
• The medium through which the signal is transmitted, such as a wired cable, optical fiber, or
wireless transmission.
• Channels introduce noise (interference) that may distort the transmitted signal.

g. Demodulator
• At the receiver's end, the demodulator extracts the original digital data from the received signal
by reversing the modulation process.
• Removes the carrier signal to recover the data.

h. Channel Decoder
• Uses the redundant information added by the channel encoder to detect and correct any errors
introduced during transmission.

i. Source Decoder
• Decompresses the data to its original form, restoring it to the format suitable for the
destination.

j. Destination
• The final point where the decoded information is delivered to the user or application.
• Could be a display, a speaker (for voice data), or a storage device.

Important Data Communication Terminology

Bandwidth: The maximum rate of data transfer in a network
Latency: Time taken for data to travel from source to destination.
Bit Rate: The number of bits transmitted per second (bps).
Modulation: The process of varying a signal to carry information. AM, FM, PM etc.
Multiplexing: Combining multiple signals into one for transmission over a shared medium. Example
TDM, FDM, WDM.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR): Measure of signal strength relative to background Noise
Error Detection and Correction: Techniques to identify and fix errors in data transmission. Example CRC,
Parity bits.

Analog to Digital Data Conversion

1. Sampling: An analog audio signal is sampled at a rate of 44.1 kHz (CD quality audio).
2. Quantization: The amplitude of each sample is assigned one of 65,536 discrete levels (16-bit
quantization).
3. Encoding: Each level is encoded as a 16-bit binary number (e.g., 1010100111011010).

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United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

Applications:
• Audio recording: Converting sound into a digital form for storage or transmission (e.g., MP3, CD
audio).
• Digital imaging: Converting visual information into digital data (e.g., digital cameras).
• Sensors: Converting analog sensor data (like temperature or pressure) into digital signals.

Digital to Analog Conversion (DAC)

Digital to Analog Conversion is the process of converting digital signals (binary data) back into
continuous analog signals. This is required when digital data must be played back as sound, video, or any
form of analog output.
Steps Involved in Digital to Analog Conversion:
1. Binary Data Input:
o The digital signal, represented as a sequence of binary values (0s and 1s), is fed into the DAC.
2. Reconstruction:
o The DAC reconstructs the analog signal by mapping the digital binary values back into
corresponding voltage or current levels.
o Each binary number is converted into a discrete voltage value, which corresponds to the
quantization levels used during the analog-to-digital conversion.
3. Smoothing (Filtering):
o Since the digital-to-analog conversion produces discrete step-like signals (because it jumps
between different levels), the output needs to be smoothed.
o A low-pass filter is used to remove the high-frequency components and smooth out the signal,
producing a continuous analog waveform.

Applications:

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United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

• Audio Playback: Converting digital audio files (MP3, WAV) back into sound waves that can be
played through speakers.
• Video Playback: Converting digital video signals to analog signals for older display systems.
• Modems: Converting digital data into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines (which
traditionally only supported analog signals).

Standards Organizations, Applications

• Applications of Data Communication:

o Telecommunications: Phone networks, VoIP, video conferencing.

o Networking: Internet, local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN).

o Broadcasting: Radio, television, satellite transmission.

o Industry: Industrial automation, IoT (Internet of Things), remote control systems.

o Cloud Computing: Data storage and processing over the internet.

o E-Commerce: Online banking, shopping, transactions across networks.

Protocols and Standards in Data Communication

• In data communication, protocols and standards play a crucial role in ensuring that devices and
systems can communicate effectively. While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they
have distinct meanings and purposes in networking.

What is Protocol?

• A protocol is a set of rules that define how data is transmitted, received, and interpreted across a
network. Protocols ensure that devices follow the same procedures during communication, allowing
them to exchange data reliably and efficiently.

Key Characteristics of Protocols:

Syntax: Defines the format or structure of the data, including the order in which information is sent.
Example: The format of an email message header in the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

Semantics: Specifies the meaning of each section of data and what actions should be taken based on
the received data.
Example: The acknowledgment signal in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) indicating that a data
packet has been successfully received.

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United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

Timing: Controls the rate of data transmission and the order in which data is sent or received. It also
deals with synchronization between sender and receiver.
Example: In TCP, data packets are transmitted in a specific sequence, and the timing ensures proper
reassembly on the receiving end.

Types of Protocols: TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, SNMP, HTTPs etc.

What is Standard?

• A standard is a formal specification that has been agreed upon by an industry body or standards
organization. Standards ensure compatibility and interoperability between different hardware
and software systems. They are essential for promoting uniformity and ensuring that devices
from different manufacturers can work together.

De Facto and De Jure Standardization

De Facto Standards are those that are widely accepted and used by the industry or the public, but they
may not have been officially sanctioned by a recognized standards organization. These standards become
dominant through widespread use and market influence rather than formal adaptation.

Example of De Facto Standards are PDF, USB, Microsoft Windows operating system, HTML for webpages
etc.

De Jure Standards are those standards that are formally approved and established by an official
standards organization through a structured process. These standards are created through a formal
process involving industry experts, stakeholders, and standards organizations.

Example of De Jure Standards are IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) and so on.

Key Roles of Standards:

• Interoperability: Devices and systems from different vendors can communicate effectively.
Example: Ethernet cables and devices from different manufacturers can work together because
they adhere to the IEEE 802.3 standard.
• Reliability: Standards ensure that communication protocols are reliable, reducing errors and
data loss.
Example: The ITU-T H.264 standard for video compression ensures high-quality video
transmission across different platforms.
• Efficiency: Standards help ensure that systems are optimized for performance, reducing
redundancy and improving data transmission speed.

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United Technical College Computer Engineering (3rd Sem) Data Communication

Example: The IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standard improves wireless communication efficiency and
speed.

Common Standards Organizations:

• International Organization for Standardization (ISO): Develops international standards across

various industries, including data communication (e.g., the OSI model).
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): Focuses on standards for electronic
devices, including the widely used IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standards.
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): Develops standards related to internet protocols, such
as TCP/IP and HTTP.
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU): Sets standards for telecommunication systems,
including ITU-T standards for voice and video transmission.
• European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI): Develops global standards for
mobile communication technologies, such as GSM, LTE, and 5G.

Prepared by: Er. Mini Madav Khanal