Introduction

to
Computer System

By:- Ishaanjeet Singh

Class:- 11th (Humanities)
  Introduction
In today’s information-driven world, the use of computers has become a fundamental necessity
for individuals across all age groups and professions. The modern era is heavily influenced by
rapid technological advancements, and computers lie at the core of this digital revolution.
Whether it’s withdrawing cash from an ATM, shopping online, e-learning, booking railway or
airline tickets, paying electricity and utility bills, diagnosing medical conditions, or simply
browsing the internet, computers are playing a vital role in streamlining our daily tasks. Even a
student's routine activities revolve around computers, such as emailing, surfing the web,
downloading and uploading content, and using social networking sites. Clicking and storing
pictures, accessing study material, and engaging with online platforms have made computers an
inseparable part of student life.

The integration of computers into various domains—education, business, healthcare,

entertainment, and communication—has made them indispensable tools in modern society. They
are capable of storing, processing, and retrieving vast amounts of data efficiently, making
information management faster and more accurate. This widespread use of computers across
different environments, such as homes, offices, industries, and institutions, highlights the
growing need to understand how computers work, their advantages and disadvantages, and their
internal architecture.

Technically, a computer is defined as an electronic device that takes input in the form of data and
instructions from the user, processes it using a set of predefined instructions (software or
program), and provides the result as output in the form of meaningful information. This ability to
convert raw data into useful and structured information helps users in making decisions, solving
problems, and automating repetitive tasks. Hence, learning about computers, their functions, and
their components is not just a technical skill but a necessary part of being an informed and
capable individual in the digital world.

 Evolution of Computing
Devices
1. Abacus (3000 BC)

 Invented in Babylon
 Uses beads on rods to count
 Still used in parts of Asia
2. Slide Rule (1622)

 Invented by William Oughtred

 Based on Napier’s rules for logarithms
 Used till the 1970s

3. Pascal’s Adding Machine (1642)

 Invented by Blaise Pascal

 Could perform addition and subtraction

 First calculator of the world

Leibnitz’s Calculator
4. Leibnitz’s Calculator (1671)

 Invented by Gottfried Leibnitz

 Improved Pascal’s machine
 Could do multiplication and division

5. Jacquard Loom (1801)

 Used punch cards

 First example of stored programs
 Influenced future computer programming

6. Babbage’s Difference Engine (1821)

 Designed to calculate mathematical tables

 Not built due to lack of technology Babbage’s Difference Engine
7. Babbage’s Analytical Engine

 First design of a general-purpose computer

 Had all parts of a modern computer
 Charles Babbage is known as the Father of
Computers

8. Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine (1888)

 Invented by Herman Hollerith

 Used for the 1890 US Census
9. Mark I Computer (1944)

 Developed by Howard Aiken with IBM Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine

 First programmable computer
 Could perform one operation per second

10. ENIAC (1946)

 Developed by Eckert and Mauchly

 First general-purpose electronic computer
 Could perform 5,000 operations/sec

11. Intel 8080 Processor (1974)

 Basis for first personal computers

 Based on John von Neumann Architecture

 Five Generations of Computers

Generation Years Technology Used Features
1st 1940–1956 Vacuum Tubes Huge size, high power use
2nd 1956–1963 Transistors Smaller, faster, less heat
3rd 1964–1971 Integrated Circuits Increased reliability, compact
4th 1971–Present Microprocessors Single-chip, highly powerful
5th Present & Future Artificial Intelligence Smart assistants, robotics

 Basic Components of a Computer

System
1. Main Components

 Hardware: Tangible parts (motherboard,

keyboard, etc.)
 Software: Set of programs/instructions

2. IPO Cycle – Input, Process, Output

  Input: Data given to the system
 Process: CPU processes the input
 Output: Processed data shown as information

Storage: Memory stores data/instructions

Input Unit

 Function: Takes input and converts it into binary for computer understanding.
 Input = Data + Instructions.
 Converts real-world input (text, clicks) into binary code.

 Common Input Devices

1. Keyboard

 Most widely used.

 Enters letters, digits, and commands.
 Special keyboards for the visually impaired are also
available.

2. Mouse

 Pointing device.
 Moves cursor/pointer on screen.
 Converts motion into binary signals.

3. Light Pen

 Pen-shaped device.
 Used to draw or select directly on screen.
 Popular with engineers/designers.

4. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

 Reads shaded areas (e.g., MCQs).

 Used in exams, surveys, etc.

5. Smart Card Reader

 Reads smart cards (ATM, ID cards).

 Has embedded microprocessors for data storage.
6. Barcode Reader

 Scans barcodes using light and sensors.

7. Biometric Sensor

 Uses fingerprints, retina, or face scans.

 Ensures identity verification and security.

8. Touch Screen

 Interactive screen input using fingers.

 Common in ATMs, malls, and kiosks.

9. Microphone

 Converts sound into digital signals.

 Used for audio input and recording.

10. Webcam

 Captures live images and videos.

 No internal storage; uses computer memory.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Known as the brain of the computer.
 Executes all instructions and calculations.
 Built with Integrated Circuits (ICs).

🧠 Components of CPU:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

o Performs math and logical operations.
o Makes decisions (e.g., comparisons).
2. Control Unit (CU):
o Manages flow of data between devices and memory.
o Does not process data itself but controls how data moves.
3. Registers:
o Small, fast memory units within CPU.
o Store intermediate results and instructions.
  Memory Unit (MU)

 Types of Memory:

 Primary Memory (Main Memory):

o Directly accessed by CPU.
o Temporary, faster, stores active data.
 Secondary Memory:
o External devices like HDD, SSD, CDs.
o Stores data permanently for later use.

 Memory Terminology:

 Bit: Smallest data unit (0 or 1).

 Nibble: 4 bits.
 Byte: 8 bits.

 Classification of Main/Primary Memory

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

 Volatile: Data lost on power-off.

 Allows read/write operations.
 Used for current program execution.
 Two types:
o SRAM (Static RAM)
o DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

 Non-volatile: Retains data after shutdown.

 Only readable, not writable.
 Used to store firmware and boot instructions.

3. Cache Memory

 Small, fast memory between CPU and RAM.

 Stores frequently accessed data to reduce access time.
 Also called *CPU memory*.
 Enhances performance by reducing data fetch time from RAM.
  Units of Memory in
Unit Equivalent
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,024 Bytes
1 Megabyte 1,024 KB
(MB)
1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) 1,024 GB
1 Petabyte (PB) 1,024 TB
1 Exabyte (EB) 1,024 PB
1 Zettabyte (ZB) 1,024 EB
1 Yottabyte (YB) 1,024 ZB

Computers

 Output Units
Output units are devices that display or present the processed data from the computer to the user.

Common Output Devices:

1. Monitor (VDU)
o Displays text, images, and videos
o Types: CRT, LCD, LED
2. Printer
o Produces hard copy (physical output)
o Types: Inkjet, Laser, Dot Matrix
3. Speaker
o Outputs sound (audio output)
 o Used for music, alerts, voice, etc.
4. Headphones
o Personal audio output device
o Used for private listening
5. Projector
o Projects computer screen onto a large surface
o Used in presentations and classrooms

 Secondary Memory
Secondary memory stores data permanently and is non-volatile (retains data even when power is
off). It is used for long-term data storage.

 Types of Secondary Memory Devices:

 Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

Magnetic storage, large capacity, used in PCs/laptops.

 Blu-ray Disc:
Optical disc, high storage (25–100 GB), used for HD videos.
 Compact Disc (CD):
Optical disc, 700 MB, used for music and small files.
 DVD (Digital Versatile Disc):
Optical disc, 4.7–8.5 GB, used for movies and software.
 Magnetic Tape:
Used for data backups, large capacity, slow access.
 USB Pen Drive:
Portable solid-state device, fast access, up to 1 TB+.
 Memory Cache:
Fast temporary memory inside CPU for quick data access.

Mechanism of Data Capture, Storage, and Retrieval – In Short (Without Bullets)

The mechanism of data capture, storage, and retrieval explains how information flows through a
computer system — from being entered to being saved and then accessed again when needed.

1. Data Capture: is the first stage, where raw data is collected or entered into a computer
system using input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, or touch
screen. These devices help convert real-world information into a digital format, usually
binary (0s and 1s), so the computer can understand and process it.
2. Data Storage: refers to saving the input data either temporarily or permanently. It is
stored in memory units such as RAM (Random Access Memory) for temporary storage
or in ROM (Read-Only Memory), hard disks, SSDs, USB drives, or CDs for long-term
 storage. The data remains in a digital format and can be used immediately or later,
depending on the task.
3. Data Retrieval: is the process of accessing the stored data when required. The CPU
fetches the data from memory, processes it as needed, and displays the result through
output devices like monitors or printers. Retrieval allows users to view, edit, or use the
information that was previously saved.

 Data Deletion and Recovery

Data deletion : It refers to the process of removing data or files from a computer or storage
device. When a user deletes a file, it is usually moved to a temporary space like the Recycle Bin
or Trash. At this stage, the data is not permanently removed and can be easily restored. However,
when the Recycle Bin is emptied or data is deleted using special commands (like Shift + Delete),
the file becomes invisible to the user, but it still exists on the storage device until it is overwritten
by new data.

Data recovery : It is the process of retrieving lost, accidentally deleted, corrupted, or

inaccessible data from storage devices like hard drives, SSDs, USB drives, memory cards, etc.
Recovery is possible because deleting a file doesn’t immediately erase it from the system—it
only removes the file's reference from the index table. Specialized data recovery software can
scan the device for such lost files and restore them if they haven’t been overwritten.

In cases of hardware failure, system crashes, or accidental formatting, professional data recovery
services may be required to retrieve the lost data. Regular backups are the best way to prevent
permanent data loss and ensure data can be recovered easily when needed.

 Software
Software is a set of instructions or programs that enable a computer to perform specific tasks.
Without software, the hardware components of a computer cannot function on their own.
Software acts as a bridge between the user and the hardware, allowing users to interact with the
system and execute operations like typing, browsing, playing games, or running applications.

 System Software
System software is designed to control and manage computer hardware and serve as a
platform for other software.

 Main Types of System Software:

1. Operating System (OS)

o Controls the overall functioning of the computer.
 o Manages hardware, memory, files, and peripheral devices.
o Provides a user interface (e.g., Windows, Linux, macOS, Android).
o Coordinates between application software and hardware.
2. Utility Programs
o Perform maintenance tasks to optimize system performance.
o Examples: Antivirus, Disk Cleanup, File Compression tools, Backup software.
3. Device Drivers
o Help the operating system communicate with hardware devices.
o Each hardware component (printer, keyboard, graphics card) needs a driver.
o Acts as a translator between the OS and the device.

 Application Software and Its

Types
Application software is a type of software designed to help users perform specific tasks or solve
particular problems. Unlike system software, which runs the computer, application software is
used by the user to do activities like creating documents, playing music, browsing the internet,
or managing data.

It runs on top of the operating system and directly interacts with the user.

 Types of Application Software

1. General Purpose Application Software :-

 Designed for common everyday tasks.

 Used by a wide range of users for personal or professional work.
 Examples:
o MS Word (word processing)
o MS Excel (spreadsheets)

2. Specific Purpose Application Software :-

 Designed to perform a single, specific task.

 Created for focused use in a particular area.
 Examples:
o Railway reservation system
o Billing system in shops

3. Customized Application Software :-

 Developed as per the specific needs of a user or organization.

 Tailor-made software to meet unique business or functional requirements.
 Examples:
 o Software for a school’s exam result processing
o Hospital management system
o Custom CRM (Customer Relationship Management) software

 Utility software
Utility software is a type of system software that is designed to help monitor, maintain, and
optimize the overall performance of a computer system. It performs essential background tasks
such as virus scanning, file management, disk cleanup, system backup, and file compression.
These tools ensure that the system runs smoothly, securely, and efficiently by fixing minor
issues, freeing up storage space, and protecting data from threats. Unlike application software,
which is used for specific user tasks like writing or browsing, utility software works to support
the operating system and improve system functionality. Examples include antivirus software,
backup utilities, disk defragmenters, and compression tools like WinRAR or 7-Zip. Such
software is essential for prolonging the life of the system and preventing crashes or data loss.