Moshupa Senior Secondary School

Computer Studies
Unit 1

Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO) – if a mistake is made in the input to a computer system, the output
will also have the mistake in it.

Components of a computer

The components of a computer consist of hardware and software.

Hardware are the physical components which makes up a computer system. Hardware consists of input
and output devices along with storage drives.

Software is a series of instructions that tells the hardware how to perform tasks. Without software, most
hardware is useless. The hardware needs instructions from software to process data into information.

Input device is any hardware components that allow a user to enter data and instructions into a computer.
Six commonly used input devices are:
Keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital camera and web camera

Output device is any hardware component that can convey information to a user.
The commonly used output devices are:
Printer, a monitor and speakers

Secondary store/backing store holds data, instructions and information for future use (permanently).
Examples are: Floppy disk, hard disk (hard drive), zip drive, CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD-ROM and
DVD+RW, flash disk.

System Unit is a box-like case made from metal or plastic that protects the internal electronic
components of the computer from damage. The circuitry in the system unit usually is part of or is
connected to a circuit board called the motherboard.

Two main components on the motherboard are the central processing unit and memory (primary store).
The central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, is the electronic device that interprets and
carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer. The fundamental components of the CPU are
control unit (CU) and the arithmetic-logic unit (ALU).

Control unit
➢ Coordinates the activities taking place in the CPU
➢ It controls the running of programs, memory and peripherals, by sending control signals to the
various devices.
➢ It directs the internal operations within the CPU.

Arithmetic-logic unit
➢ Deals with all arithmetic and logic operation to be carried out. Examples are addition, subtraction
and comparison such as greater than and less than etc.
➢ It is responsible for the manipulation of data.

Memory
➢ A temporary holding place for data and instructions that are being processed.
➢ It holds the data and programs that are currently being used.
➢ It is volatile.
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Communication devices enable computer users to communicate and to exchange items such as data,
instructions and information with another computer.

Modem
➢ A communications device that enables computers to communicate usually via telephone lines or
cable.
➢ It modulates and demodulates data signals that are being sent and received via communications
channel (telephone lines)
➢ It converts data from analogue to digital and vice a versa so that they can be sent via the
telephone lines.
Network card (NIC)
➢ A communication device used to connect computers on a network via cables.

The Components of a Computer

Central
Input Processing Output
Devices Unit Devices
(CPU)

Secondary
Store

Peripheral – Any device that may be attached to a computer system for input, output or backing store.

Input – The process or entering data to be processed.

Output – The result obtained after processing.

Data and information

Data is a collection of raw unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols. Computers process data to create
information.

Information is data that is organized, meaningful, and useful to a particular group of users. The time
cards for a given week are an example of data. A company might process this data into a report
(information) that summarizes the total hours worked and the payroll expense for the week.

Information Processing Cycle

Input Process Output

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Unit 2

Input Device
Input is any data or instructions you enter into the memory of a computer.

An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs, commands and user
responses into a computer. Examples of input devices are as follows:

Keyboard: Contains keys you press to enter data into the computer.

Pointing Devices allows you to control a pointer on the screen. In graphical user interface, a pointer is a
small symbol on the screen; it often takes the shape of an I-beam, a block arrow, or a pointing hand.
Using a pointing device, you can position the pointer to move or select items on the screen.

Mouse is a pointing device that fits comfortably under the palm of your hand. The mouse is the most
widely used pointing device on desktop computers. It contains one to four buttons for selection,
sometimes a wheel from scrolling on the top and a ball at the bottom to move the mouse pointer on the
screen.

Trackball/Tracker pad is a stationary pointing device with a ball on its top. The ball is
used to move the pointer on the screen you rotate the ball with your thumb, fingers or palm of your hand.
In addition to the ball, a trackball usually has one or more buttons that work just like mouse buttons.

Touchpad is a small, flat, rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to pressure and motion. To
move the pointer using touchpad, you slide your fingertip across the surface of the pad. Some touchpad
have one or more buttons around the edge of the pad that work like mouse buttons.

Joystick and Wheel is used for game software.

Joystick is a vertical lever mounted on a base. You move the lever in different directions to control
the actions of the vehicle or player. The lever usually includes buttons called triggers you can press to
activate certain events.

Wheel is a steering-wheel-type input device. You turn the wheel to simulate driving a car, truck, or
other vehicle. Most wheels also include foot pedals for acceleration and braking actions. A joystick and
wheel typically attach via a cable to the game port on a sound card or game card or to a USB port.

Light pen is a handheld input device that can detect the presence of light. To select objects on the
screen, you press the light pen against the surface of the screen or point the light pen at the screen and
then press a button on the pen.

Touch screen is a touch-sensitive display. You interact with the device by touching areas of the
screen with your finger.

Stylus looks like a ballpoint pen, but uses pressure, instead of ink, to write text and draw lines. This
device, originally called a pen or electronic pen, was used primarily in professional graphical applications
such as computer-aided design and drafting.

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Microphone is used to allow sound to be input to a computer system.

Voice input (voice recognition/speech recognition) is the process of entering data by speaking into a
microphone that is attached to the sound card on the computer and watch the spoken words display on
your screen as you talk. You also can edit and format a document by speaking or spelling instructions.
This device is ideal to assist physically challenged.

Digital camera allows you to take pictures and store the photograph image digitally, instead of on
traditional film, these photos can then be transferred to the computer system.

Digital video camera is used for taking movies. It works on the same principal as a digital still camera,
but records the moving pictures to videotape instead of memory card. A digital video camera may be
connected to a computer system in order to download the movie and edit it on screen.

Web cam also called cam, is a small digital camera, which is normally positioned on or beside the
computer’s monitor in order to capture images, which may be transmitted across a network.

Sound card improve the quality of sound output from games and multimedia applications.

Optical scanner usually called scanner is a light-sensing input device that reads printed text and
graphics and then translates the results into a form the computer can use. One of the more popular types
of scanner is a flatbed scanner it works similarly to a copy machine except it creates a file of the
document in memory instead of a paper copy.

Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that involves reading typewritten, computer-
printed, or handwritten characters from ordinary documents and translating the images into a form that
the computer can recognize.

Optical mark recognition (OMR)

➢ A device that read hand-drawn marks such as small circles or rectangles. A person places these
marks on a form such s test, survey or questionnaire answer sheet.
➢ It is used to mark multiple-choice responses.

Bar code scanner/Bar code reader uses laser beams to read bar codes.

Bar code is an identification code that consists of a set of vertical lines and spaces of different width.
The bar code represents data that identifies the manufacturer and the item.

Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) reader can read text printed with magnetized ink. The
banking industry almost exclusively uses MICR for check processing. Each check in your checkbook has
pre-coded MICR characters beginning at the lower-left edge. These characters represent the check
number, the bank number and your account number.

Wireless input technology is used to obtain data directly at the location where the transaction or event
takes place. Many users have Web-enabled computers and devices such as cellular telephones and
pagers, which allow wireless connections to the Web.

Input devices for physically challenged users: Voice recognition is ideal for blind or visually impaired
users; other input devices are available for users with limited hand mobility can use a keyboard that has
several options. A key guard is a metal or plastic plate placed over the keyboard that allows users to rest
their hands on the keyboard without accidentally pressing any keys. A key guard also guides a finger or
pointing device so a user presses only one key at a time. Keyboard with larger keys are also available.

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Various pointing devices are available for users with motor disabilities. Small trackballs that you control
with a thumb or one finger can be attached to a table, mounted to a wheelchair or held in a user’s hand.
People with limited hand movements can use a head mounted pointer to control the pointer or insertion
point.

OUTPUT DEVICE
Output is data that has been processed into a useful form, called information. That is computer process
input into output. Output includes text, graphics or graphical image, audio and video.

Output device is any hardware component that can convey information to a user. Commonly used
output devices include display devices, printers, speakers, headsets, data projectors, facsimile machines
and multifunction devices.

Display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics and video information.
Information on a display device, sometimes called soft copy, exists electronically and displays for a
temporary period. Display device consists of screen or projection surface and the components that
produce the information on the screen. Many computers use a monitor as their display device. A
cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor screen use pixel (short for picture element) to display information on a
screen. Pixel is a single point in an electronic image. A liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor contains
liquid crystals instead of pixel.

Printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper or
transparency film. Printed information, called hard copy, exists physically and is a more permanent
form of output than that presented on a display device (soft copy). A hard copy, which also is called a
printout, can be portrait orientation or landscape orientation. Printers are either impact or non-impact.

Impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking a mechanism against an
inked ribbon that physically contacts the paper.

Disadvantage
➢ Impact printers generally are noisy because of this striking activity.
➢ They do not produced high quality printing.
➢ They are generally slow.

Advantages
➢ Cheaper than non-impact.
➢ Produce multiple copies as they can easily print through many layers of papers using carbon.

Types of impact printers

➢ Dot-matrix
➢ Line printers.

Non-impact printer forms character and graphics on a piece of paper without actually striking the paper.
Some spray ink, while others use heat and pressure to create images.

Advantages
➢ Quieter and
➢ Faster than the previous discussed impact printers

Disadvantages
➢ More expensive than impact printers.

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Types of non-impact printers
➢ Ink-jet printers
➢ Laser printers
➢ Thermal printers.

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Plotters and Large-Format Printers

Plotters are sophisticated printers used to produce high-quality drawing such as blueprints, maps and
circuit diagrams. The printers are used in specialized fields such as engineering and drafting and usually
are very costly.

Large-format printer creates photorealistic-quality colour prints. Graphic artists use these high-cost,
high-performance printers for signs, posters and other displays. Plotters and large-format printers
typically can handle paper with widths up to 2 meters because blueprints, maps, sighs, posters and other
such drawings and displays can be quite large.

Speakers and Headsets (voice output)

An audio output device is a component of a computer that produces music, speech or other sounds, such
as beeps. Two commonly used audio output devices are speakers and headsets. Speakers are used to
generate high quality sound, sometimes woofer (also called subwoofer) is used to boost the low bass
sound. Headset allows only the user to hear the sound from the computer.

Other Output Devices

Data projector is a device that takes the image from a computer screen and projects it onto a large screen
so an audience of people can see the image clearly.

Facsimile (fax) machine is a device that transmits and receives documents over telephone lines. The
document can contain text, drawings or photographs or can be hand written. The term fax refers to
document that you send or receive via a fax machine.

Multifunction device (MFD) is a single piece of equipment that looks like a copy machine, but provides
the functionality of a printer, scanner, copy machine and perhaps a fax machine.

Terminal is a device that performs both input and output because it consists of a monitor (output), a
keyboard (input) and a video card.

Output devices for physically challenged users include large size monitors, speakers and headset
(voice output).

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Unit 3

STORAGE
Memory/Primary Store is a temporary holding place for data and instructions. During processing, the
processor places instructions to be executed and data needed by those instructions into memory. Memory
is called primary store and consist of one or more chips on the motherboard or some other circuit board in
the computer.

Storage refers to the media on which data, instructions and information are kept permanent. Storage also
called secondary storage (backing store) holds items such as data, instructions and information for
future use. Storage is non-volatile. Item stored remain intact even when power is removed from the
computer. The speed of a storage device is defined by its access time. Access time is the amount of time
it takes a device to locate and item on a medium. The access time of storage device is slow, compared
with memory. Memory device access items in billionths of a second (nanoseconds). Storage device, by
contrast, access items in thousandth of a second (milliseconds).

Capacity is the number of bytes (character) a storage medium can hold.

Storage Term Abbreviation Number of Bytes

Kilobyte KB 1 thousand
Megabyte MB 1 million
Gigabyte GB 1 billion
Terabyte TB 1 trillion
Petabyte PB 1 quadrillion

Storage device is the device used to transfer data on to storage medium/secondary storage.

Type of storage device

➢ Floppy disk drive
➢ Zip drive
➢ CD drive
➢ DVD drive
➢ Hard drive

Cost speed

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Magnetic Disk

Floppy disk or diskette is a portable, inexpensive storage medium that consists of a thin, circular,
flexible plastic disk with a magnetic coating enclosed in a square-shaped plastic shell. Today the
standard floppy disk is 3.5 inches wide. 3.5 inches disk comes in data capacity of 1.44 MB or 720 KB.

Floppy disk drive (FDD) is a device that can read from and write on a floppy disk. Desktop personal
computers and many notebook computers have a floppy disk drive installed inside the system unit. Some
notebook computers have a removable floppy disk drove, where you can remove the entire drive and
replace it with another type of drive or device. Computer with only one floppy drive refers to it as drive
A. Computers that have two floppy disk drives designate the second one as drive B. The read/write
head in the floppy disk drive is the mechanism that actually reads items from or writes items on the
floppy disk.

Sector

Track

Makeup of a Floppy Disk

A floppy disk store data in tracks and sectors, the floppy diskette surface is divided into several
concentric circles called tracks. The thinner the tracks, the more information the disk can hold. Data is
recorded as tiny spots on the tracks. The circular tracks are further divided into wedge-shaped sections
known as sectors. Data on a diskette is organized according to tracks and sectors

Formatting/Initializing: Diskettes bought by a user are either formatted or unformatted. Formatting a

diskette is using a special program to mark out the tracks and sectors on the diskette so that it can store
information.

Care if floppy disk

1. Avoid exposing it to heat.
2. Avoid exposing it to cold.
3. Avoid exposing it to magnetic fields.
4. Avoid it from dust contamination.
5. Keep away from smoke and salt air.

Every floppy disk contain a write-protect notch which is a small opening that has a tab you slide to cover
or expose the notch. When the disk is write-protect this will avoid data being accidentally erase.

High-capacity disk drive is a drive that uses disks with capacities of 100 MB and greater. High-
capacity disks allow you easily to transport a large number of files from one computer to another. These
disks also can store large graphics, audio, or video files. Another popular use of these disks is to back up
important data and information. A backup is a duplicate of a file, program or disk that you can use in
case the original is lost, damaged or destroyed. Three types of high-capacity disk drives are the
SuperDisktm , the HiFD drive and the Zip® drive.

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Hard disk also called a hard disk drive contains several inflexible, circular platter that store items
electronically. The platter, along with the read/write heads, and the mechanism for moving the heads
across the surface of the hard disk, are enclosed in an airtight, sealed case to protect them from
contamination.

Compact discs (CD), also called optical disk, is a storage medium consisting of a flat, round portable,
metal disk with a protective plastic coating that usually is 4.75 inches in diameter and less than one-
twentieth of 1 inch thick. Compact discs are available in a variety of formats, including CD-ROM
(compact disc read-only memory), CD-R (compact disc recordable), CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable),
DVD-ROM (digital versatile disc read-only memory) and DVD+RW (digital versatile disc-rewritable).

Magnetic Tape is a large coated with a magnetic material on which data can be stored. This is a
sequential access storage device that is usually used for backup purposes as they are of low cost.

Tape storage requires sequential access, which refers to reading or writing data consecutively. Like a
music tape you must forward or rewind the tape to a specific piece of data.

Floppy disks, hard disks and compact discs all uses direct access. Direct access also called random
access means you can locate a particular data item or file immediately without having to move
consecutively through items stored in front of the desired data item or file.

Important
Sequential access is much slower than direct access.

Advantages of hard disk over floppy disk:

• Storage capacity is significantly greater
• Hard disk allows faster access to data than diskette

Disadvantages of hard disk over floppy disk

• More expensive
• Hard disk cannot be easily moved from place to place without much complication.
• Head crash can occur.

Memory Stick/Flash Disk is a portable drive, which is used via the USB port. They are available in
various shape and style example: shape of a pen or wristwatch etc. they are available in the following
sizes: 100 MB, 256 MB and 512 MB. Memory stick is a fairly new technology and hence will not be
found in most text.

PC Cards is a thin credit-card-sized device that fits into a PC Card slot on a notebook or other personal
computer. Different types and sizes of PC Cards add storage, additional memory, communications and
sound capabilities to a computer. Notebook computers and other mobile computers and devices most
often use PC Cards.

Smart card, which is similar in size to a credit card or ATM card, stores data on a thin microprocessor
embedded in the card. When you insert the smart card into a specialized card reader, the information on
the smart card is read and if necessary, updated.

Microfilm and Microfiche

Microfilm and microfiche store microscopic image of documents on roll of sheet film. Microfilm uses a
100 to 215 foot roll of film. Microfiche uses a small sheet of film, usually about four inches by six
inches. A computer output microfilm (COM) recorder is the device that records the images on the
film. The stored images are so small that you can read them only with a microfilm or microfiche reader.

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Application of microfilm and microfiche are widespread. Libraries use these media to store back issues
of newspapers, magazines, and genealogy records. Large organizations use microfilm and microfiche to
archive inactive files. Banks use them to store transactions and cancelled checks. The US Army uses
them to store personnel records.

Advantages of using microfilm and microfiche:

• They greatly reduce the amount of paper firms must handle.
• They are inexpensive.
• They have the longest life of any storage media.

Backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk that can be used if the original is lost, damaged, or
destroyed.

Importance of creating backup:

Recover from:
➢ System failure
➢ Virus attack
➢ Data lost
➢ Data corruption

Memory Chip

Random access memory (RAM) or primary store is located in RAM chip physically close to the CPU.
Functions:
• Stores data for processing
• Stores instructions for processing the data
• Stores processed data (information) that is waiting to be sent to an output or secondary storage
device.
RAM is volatile means that the content is erased when the flow of electricity to the CPU is terminated.
Data can be written as well as be read from it.

Read only memory (ROM) chip is a memory chip that stores instructions and data permanently that is it
is non-volatile. The information on a ROM chip is stored on it by the manufacturers and cannot be
modified by the user. Data can be read from it but not written to it.

The programs on a ROM chip are called firmware, this could include:
• The operating system or the part of the operating system needed to start up the computer.
• Utility programs, including anti-virus programs and disk management programs.

There are several variations of ROM:

Programmable read only memory (PROM) The PROM chip is left blank by the manufacturers and
written to by the customer. Once written to the chip, it becomes read only memory i.e. cannot be
changed.

Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM) is a reusable PROM chip that can be erased by
a special ultraviolet light. EPROM holds its content until erased by and new instructions can be written
on it. To reprogram an EPROM chip it has to be removed from the computer.

Electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM) chip is similar to EPROM except
that it is erased by applying electrical pulses to the chip, making it possible to reprogram the chip without
removing it from the computer.

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Cache memory is a special high-speed memory designed to supply the processor with the most
frequently requested instructions and data. Instructions and data located in cached memory can be
accessed many times faster than instructions and data located in main memory. The more instructions
and data the processor can access directly from cache memory the faster the computer runs as a whole.

Buffer is an internal memory area used for temporary storage of data records during input or output
operation an example is printer buffer.

Categories of computers
There are five main categories of general-purpose computer: personal digital assistants, microcomputer,
minicomputers, mainframe and supercomputers. These classifications are based on physical size, speed,
processing capabilities, memory size, disk storage capacities and cost. However, rapid advances in
technology mean that the boundaries are constantly shifting and many computers might be put into more
than one category.

Supercomputer is the term used to describe the fastest computers currently available. The speed of most
computers was, for many years, measured by how many millions of instructions per second, or MIPS,
they could execute. Prices range from several million dollars to US$27 million. The uses of super
computers are science simulations, analysis of geological data, structural analysis, nuclear energy
research and meteorology and weapon research.

Mainframe computers vary considerably in physical size. The small ones are about the size of a
dishwasher and the large ones are spread over thousand of square centimetres of floor space. Because
mainframe computers are designed primarily to support enterprise-wide information systems, they are
frequently referred to as enterprise servers. Mainframe is less powerful and less expensive than
supercomputers. It is less powerful because of its processing speed and memory size. Mainframe can
process a number of applications concurrently. This is known as multi-processing which aims at
keeping the Central Processing Unit as busy as possible. Mainframe is mainly uses in large organizations
where many users at separate workstations must share the same computer. Example federal and local
government agencies and coordinates and manages vast amounts of data in giant data banks.

Minicomputers were developed in the 1960s for doing specialized tasks. They were smaller, less
powerful and less expensive than the large computers available at the time. As they become increasingly
sophisticated, their capabilities, memory size and overall performance have overlapped those of
mainframes. Minicomputers are easier to install and operate than mainframe computers. They take up
less floor space than mainframe; they fit on a desk or they may be as large as filing cabinets. They
require few special environmental conditions. Minicomputers can be plugged into standard electrical
outlets and often do not require facilities such as air conditioning and special platforms. Prices for
minicomputers range from a few thousand United States dollars to several hundred thousand United State
dollars. Uses of minicomputers are to support a number of applications/programs running simultaneously
and often uses at time-sharing operating system that aims at keeping the CPU users busy, numerical
control machine tools and in conjunction with communication facilities for sharing data and peripherals
or serving a geographically dispersed organization.

Microcomputer (Personal computer) is the most popular types of computers today. The demand for
microcomputers continues to increase. Only one person generally uses a single microcomputer at a time.
However, with appropriate software, several users can use some of the more powerful ones at once. To
share data and computing power they can be connected to large systems in micro-to-mainframe links.
Microcomputers include: desktop, laptops, notepads, pocket PCs, electronic organizers and pen
computers. Uses of microcomputers includes homes to balance family check books, recreational

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activities such as game playing, doing school children’s home work and small business use
microcomputer for word processing, book keeping and store and handling of mailing lists as well as
journalist to type his or her article or to research certain topics on the internet.

Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a specialized hand held computer that is designed to electronically
organize all your personal information. Because of their size and limitation they are not a replacement
for portable computers. Uses of personal digital assistants are: telephone book, address book,
appointment calendar, notepads and financial applications.

Care of Computers
• Kept in a cool/dust free place
• Kept away from food particles especially liquid
• Used with surge protectors or uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to protect from irregular flow
of current.
• Ensure that an Anti-virus software in installed and running on computer
• Avoid bringing floppy disk from outside source to be used on computer otherwise scan floppy
disk before attempting to use on computer.
• If computer is on a network logoff at the end of your session.
• Shut down computer in correct way after days usage.
• Monitor must be kept away from magnetism.

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Unit 4

Why a computer is so powerful

A computer devices its power from its capability of performing the information processing cycle
operations with amazing speed, reliability and accuracy; storing huge amounts of data and information;
and communicating with other computers.

Computer Software
Software, also called a computer program or simply a program, is a series of instructions that tells the
hardware of a computer what to do. There are two categories of software: system software and
application software.

System software
System software consists of the programs that control the operations of the computer and its devices.
System software serves as the interface between the user, the application software and the computer’s
hardware. Two types of system software are the operating system and utility programs.

Operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing instructions that coordinate all the activities
among computer hardware devices. Most of today’s computers use Microsoft’s most recent operating
system, called Windows XP. When you start a computer, the operating system is loaded into memory
from the computer’s hard disk. It remains in memory while the computer is running and allows you to
communicate with the computer and other software.

Functions of the operating system:

• Starting the computer i.e. booting.

• Managing programs such as controls execution of application software.
• Managing memory
• Utility services such as accessing the web.
• Monitoring performance such as controls all hardware devices.
• Controlling a network such as access rights
• Administering security.
• Allowing user interaction.

A single user operating system allows only one user to run one program at a time.

Single tasking operating system allows a user to run only one program at a time; you must quit any
program currently before running you can run another program.

A multitasking operating system allows a single user to work on two or more applications that reside in
memory at the same time.

A multi-user operating system enables two or more users to run program simultaneously. Networks,
mid-range servers, mainframes and supercomputers allow hundreds to thousands of users to connect at
the same time and thus are multi-user.

A multiprocessing operating system can support two or more processors running programs at the same
time. Multiprocessing involves the coordinated processing of programs by more than one processor.
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Types of operating systems

Stand-Alone Operating System

Disk Operating System (DOS) refers to several single user operating systems developed in the early
1980s for personal computers.

Windows 3.x was the first graphical user interface operating system that Microsoft released in 1992. It
was not really an operating system but however, was an operating environment and it had work in
combination with an operating system to simplify it used. It was designed to work with DOS.

Windows 95 was developed by Microsoft as a true multitasking operating system. Windows 95 did not
need DOS to run. It includes some DOS and Windows 3.x features to allow for downward compatibility.

Windows NT Workstation developed as a client operating system that could connect to a Windows NT
Server. It was an operating system designed for client/server networks.

Windows 98 was developed as an upgrade to Windows 95 operating system. It was more integrated with
the Internet than Windows 95. It also provides faster system start-up and shutdown, better file
management and support for multimedia technologies such as DVD and WebTV (today known as MSN
TV). Windows 98 supported USB so you easily could add and remove devices on your computer.

Windows 2000 Professional was developed as an upgrade to Windows NT Workstation. It is a

complete multitasking client operating system that has GUI. It is a reliable operating system for business
desktop and business notebook computers. Windows 2000 provides faster performance than Windows
98 and requires more disk space, memory and a faster processor.

Windows Millennium Edition (Windows ME) is an upgrade to the Windows 98 operating system. It
has features specifically for the home user.

Windows XP is Microsoft’s fastest, most reliable Windows operating system yet, providing quicker
start-up better performance, and new, simplified visual look.

Apple’s Macintosh operating system (Mac OS) was one of the first commercially successful GUIs. It
was released with Macintosh computers in 1984. Since then, it has set the standard for operating system
ease of use and has been the model for most of the new GUI developed for non-Macintosh systems. The
latest version, called Mac OS X, is a multitasking operating system available only for computers
manufactured by Apple.

OS/2 Warp Client is IBM’s GUI multitasking client operating system that supports networking, Java,
the Internet and speech recognition.

Network Operating System

Novel NetWare is a network operating system designed for client/server networks. NetWare has a
server portion that resides on the network server and a client portion that resides on each client computer
connected to the network. The server portion on NetWare allows you to share hardware devices attached
to the server (such as printers), as well as any files or application software stored on the server. Client
computers portion of NetWare communicates with the server. Client computers can also have their own
stand-alone operating system.

Windows NT Server is the server for Windows NT Workstation.

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Windows 2000n Server is an upgrade to Windows NT Server. It is the operating system for the typical
business network.

Windows .NET Server is an upgrade to Windows 2000 Server to meet the needs of all sizes of business.

OS/2 Warp Server for E-Business is IBM’s network operating system designed for all sizes of business.
Many e-commerce applications use OS/2 Warp Server for E-Business.

UNIX (pronounced YOU-nix) is a multitasking operating system developed in the early 1970s by
scientist at Bell Laboratories.

Linux is one of the fastest growing operating system. It is popular, free, multitasking UNIX-type
operating system. It also includes many free programming languages.

Utility program is a type of system software that performs a specific task, usually related to managing a
computer, its devices, or its programs.

Popular utility programs:

File viewers
File compression
Diagnostic utility
Uninstaller
Disk scanner
Disk defragmenter
Backup utility
Screen saver

An example of a utility program is Norton Antivirus, which is used to protect the computer from a virus
attack.

16
Unit 5

Application Software
Application software consists of programs that perform specific task for users.

Popular application software includes:

• Word processing software (word processor) allows user to create and manipulate documents that
contain text and graphics. Documents such as letters, memorandums, and brochures. This
software is usually used to create documents such as letters, reports, and fax cover sheet, mailing
labels, newsletters and Web pages. The software is usually used by: Secretary, Web pages
designers and Magazine producers.
• Spreadsheet software allows you to organize data in rows and columns and perform calculations
on the data. Users perform financial tasks such as budgeting and forecasting with spreadsheet
software. This software is usually used by: Bursar, Accountants etc.
• Database software (database management system (DBMS)) allows you to create, access and
manage a database. It enables user’s to add, change, delete, and sort and retrieves data from the
database. This software is use by the Supplies department, Secretary for storing files or records.
• Presentation graphics software allows you to create documents called presentations, which are
useful to communicate ideas, messages, and other information to a group or audience. The
presentation can be viewed as slides, sometimes called a slide show, that display on a large
monitor or on a projection screen. Speakers in presentation usually use this software.
• Accounting software helps companies to record and report their financial transactions.
• Desktop publishing (DTP) software enables professional’s designers to design and produce
sophisticated documents that contain text, graphics and brilliant colours. DTP software is ideal
for the production of high-quality colour documents such as textbooks, corporate newsletters,
marketing literature, product catalogue and annual reports.
• Computer aided design (CAD) is a sophisticated type of application software that assists a
professional user in creating engineering, architectural and scientific designs. For examples,
engineers can create and design plans. Users would include fashion and fabric designers, graphic
artist.
• Video and Audio editing software: With video editing software you can modify a segment of a
video, called a clip. You can reduce the length of a video clip, record a series of clips or add
special effects such as words that move horizontally across the screen. With audio editing
software you can modify audio clips and produce studio quality sound tracks. You can remove a
distracting background noise from the audio clip.
• Multimedia authoring software also called authorware allows you to combine text, graphics,
audio, video and animation into an interactive presentation.
• Web page authoring software helps users of all skill levels create fascinating Web pages that
include graphical images, video, audio, animation, and other special effects.
• Communication software: Email software enables user to create, send, receive, forward, store,
print and delete e-mail messages. Web browser or browser allow you to access and view Web
pages on the Internet. Chat room permits users to chat with each other via the computer.
Newsgroups also called a discussion are an online area on the Web where users conduct written
discussion about a particular subject. Instant messaging is a real-time communication service that
notifies you when one or more people are online and then allows you to exchange messages or
files with them or join a private chat room. Groupware is a software application that helps groups
of people work together and share information over a network. Videoconferencing is a meeting
between two or more geographically separated people who use a network or the Internet to
transmit audio and video data. It allows participants to collaborate as if they were in the same
room.

17
 • Expert system is a management information system that captures and stores the knowledge of
human experts and then imitates human reasoning and decision-making.

Application software is available in a variety of forms: general purpose, special purpose and custom
written software.

General-purpose software is software packages that can be purchased off the shelves. These packages
are used for routine tasks. Examples: word processing software, desktop publishing software,
spreadsheet, database packages, graphics packages, computer aided design packages, expert systems
software.

Advantage(s)
➢ Readily available for purchases
➢ Usually perform several tasks for the user.
➢ Relatively cheaper than custom written software

Disadvantage(s)
➢ May not be able perform some specific task required by the user.

Special purpose software is software packages that can be purchased off the shelves and are used to
perform specific tasks. Examples: payroll package, stock control, keeping business accounts, theatre
booking.

Advantage
➢ Readily available for purchases
➢ Relatively cheaper than custom written software

Disadvantage(s)
➢ May not be able perform specific task required by the user.
➢ Perform only a specific task.

Custom written software is software packages that are written by the user of a software house under
contract to perform a specific task. It is like buying a piece of fabric at a store and taking it to a tailor
where your measurement is taken and a suit made for you.

Advantage
➢ Perform the specific task required by the ser.

Disadvantage(s)
➢ Not readily available for purchase.
➢ Take some time to acquire.
➢ More expensive than off the shelf off the shelf software.

Integrated software is a software package that houses more that one application in one. For example a
combination of word processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation software and desktop publishing in
one. Examples of integrated software are: Microsoft Office and Microsoft Works.

18
Unit 6

User Interface
User interface is the screen design, which determines how you interact with software. There are three
types of interface; menu driven, graphical user interfaces (GUI) and command driven interface (CDI).

A menu driven interface gives the user a list of commands from which to choose or request that data be
entered in a particular form. Example of software Direct Access

Advantages of menu driven interface:

• The user is presented with a list of option to choose from, they don’t need to remember
commands
• Free from typing errors, because user does not have to type commands
• A wide variety of input device can be use to interface with menu

Disadvantages of menu driven interface:

• Several steps required to issue a command
• Once users have learned the menu system it is bothersome to have to wait on the package to
present the questions before commands can be entered.

With graphical user interface you interact with the software using visual images such as icons and pop-
up and drop-down menu by selecting commands with the use of the mouse. An icon is a small image
that represents a program, instruction, or some other object; selection is made using the mouse. A menu
is a list of commands from which a user can select. Windows XP operating system is an example of
graphical user interface. Example of software is Microsoft Windows and Windows XP.

Advantages of GUIs:
• Reduce typing
• Fewer command error.
• To perform complex tasks in a user friendly way
• Permits ready communication with the system.
• To determine how information is displayed on the screen.

Disadvantages of GUIs:
• May consume more screen space hence use more memory
• For programmers the design of graphical user interface is more complex
• Increase use of computer memory can lead to slower processing

With command driven interface interaction with software is made by typing commands at the prompt
line a list of commands to choose from is not given.. Microsoft disk operating system (MSDOS) is an
example of command driven interface.

Advantages of command driven interface:

• Faster to use once you have learnt the commands
• For computer programmer command driven interface are cheaper to implement

Disadvantages of command driven interface:

• It is sometimes difficult to remember all the commands; therefore users have to constantly refer to
the software user manual.
• Restrict the user to using only the keyboard as the interfacing devices, while with other interfaces
a wide variety of input devices can be used.

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 • Commands must be entered at a special location on the screen and in a set format.
Unit 7

20
Networks
A network is a linked set of computers that can share data and programs.

Advantages of network:
• Sharing hardware
• Sharing software
• Sharing data and information
• Regular backups are possible at one point.
• Messages can be sent within the network.

Disadvantages of network:
• Network can be exposed thus enabling hacking
• Only people who have account can use computer
• Need more skills to administrate
• Possible virus infection
• Security and privacy problem like sharing data.

Local area network (LAN) is a network that covers a small area. e.g. school computer laboratory, office
building.
Node : Any computer or device on the network.

Wide area network (WAN) covers a large geographic area such as a city, country or the world.

Communication Devices

A communications device is any type of hardware capable of transmitting data, instructions and
information between a sending device and a receiving device. Examples of communication devices are
as follows:

Network interface card (NIC) also called network card is a communication device that allows the
computer to communicate via a network through cable connections. Personal computers on a LAN
typically contain a NIC.

Modem is a communications device that enables computers to communicate via telephone lines.

Network topology is the physical arrangement of the devices in a network.

Three commonly used network topologies are:

• Bus
• Ring
• Star

A bus network consists of a single central cable, to which all computers and other drives connect. The
bus also called the backbone is the physical cable that connects the computer and other devices. The bus
in a bus network can transmit data, instruction and information in both directions. Bus network is
popular because they are inexpensive and easy to install.

21
Advantages:
• You can attach and detach computers and other devices at any point on the bus without disturbing
the rest of the network.
• Failure of one device usually does not affect the rest of the bus network.

Disadvantage:
• Cannot connect a large number of computers this way

On a ring network a cable forms a closed ring or loop with all computers and devices arranged along the
ring. Data transmitted on a ring network travels from device to device around the entire ring, in one
direction. When a computer sends data, the data travels to each computer on the ring until it reaches it
reach its destination.

Advantage:
Requires less cabling and so is less expensive

Disadvantage:
If one node is down, the entire network will not be able to function.

22
On a star network all of the devices on the network connect to a central computer, thus forming a star.
The central computer that provides a common connection point for devices on the network is called the
hub. All data that transfer from one computer to another, passes through the hub.

Advantages:
Gives close control of data
Each PC sees all the data
The data received by the user is always up-to-date.
If a computer other than the host falls, no other computer is affected.

Disadvantage:
If host computer or its software malfunctions, the whole network is down. (Backup computer system
would be necessary to keep the network going while repairs are made to the hub).

Transmission media (Communication media) refers to the physical material along which data travels
from one point to another. The media you use is dependent on the distance of the data to be transmitted.
For computers that are linked by cables (short distance communication), there are three choices; twisted
pairs, coaxial cables and fiber optics. For communication over long distances, wireless technology is
used, for example, microwave and satellites.

A telephone line consists of a twisted pair of copper wires and is the medium used by telephones to
transmit data.

Advantages:
• The telephone network links the entire world; therefore, data can be transmitted to virtually any
place in the world.
• Cheep

Disadvantage:
23
 • Subject to interference

Coaxial cable consists of a conductive cylindrical shield with a central wire or solid core held together by
an insulating material. These are the cables that connect your television set to the cable television
provider and one medium used to connect computers in a local area network.

Advantages:
• Not susceptible to interference
• Transmits faster than twisted pairs
• Can accommodate digital and analog signals

Disadvantages:
• Heavy and bulky
• Needs booster over distance

24
A fiber optic line is made up of tiny threads of glass tubes about the size of a human hair. Large volumes
of data can be transmitted at the speed of light through these glass tubes. A single glass fiber can transmit
the entire Bible in a single second. It would take over 20 hours to send the bible over the telephone line.
As the production cost of fiber optic cables decreases, it will become the communication medium of
choice replacing coaxial cables and telephone lines and possibly even satellite and microwave
transmissions.

Advantages:
• Smaller and lighter
• Faster (match the speed of light)
• No interference
• Abundance of raw material to manufacture medium
• Able to bend right around a corner

Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Hard to install and modify

25
Microwave is a good medium for sending data between buildings in a city or on a large college campus.
For longer distances the waves must be relayed by means of “dishes” or antennas.

Advantages:
• Travels at the speed of light
• Transmit both analog and digital data

Disadvantages:
• Cannot travel around bends (line-of-sight only)
• The signal cannot penetrate buildings or mountains
• The relay stations must be placed no more than 30 miles apart.

A satellite link operates over long distances. A single satellite channel is capable of carrying very large
number of separate transmissions.

Advantages:
• Always in sight
• No distance limitation

Disadvantages:
• Very expensive to set up
• Not suitable for rapid exchange of data, because delays occur when data are sent thousands of
miles up into space and back down again.

26
Protocol- This is a set of rules that enables network devices to communicate together. Protocols perform
the following functions in a telecommunication network.

• Identify each device in the communication path.

• Secure the attention of the other device.
• Verify the correct receipt of a transmitted message.
• Verify that a message requires retransmission because it cannot be correctly interpreted.
• Perform recovery when errors occur.

Data transmission methods

There are three-transmission methods:

• Simplex
• Half duplex
• Duplex (full duplex)

Simplex is a transmission system allows data to travel data in one direction only. Example: transmission
between the keyboard and the system.

Half duplex transmission allows data to travel in both direction but not at the same time. Example:
transmission between the floppy drive the system.

Duplex is a transmission allows data to travel in both direction and at the same time. Example: the
transmission between the memory and the system.

27
Unit 8

Real Time System

With real time processing, the system is automatically updated when a change is made due to a
transaction occurring. The advantage with real time system is that the current situation is always being
shown.

Examples of real time processing system:

➢ Hotel booking
➢ ATM banking
➢ Air flight booking

Data logging

A data logging system automatically collects data over a certain period of time as well as being able to
alter this time.

Data logging system is used for:

• Weather reporting
• Temperature
• Wind speed
• Wind direction
• Rainfall
• Daylight and sunshine hours

Advantages of data logging:

• It performs automatically without the need for human to make the measurement.
• Data can be collected more frequently than would be possible doing it manually.
• The frequency with which the data is logged may also be varied.
• The electronic signal from the sensors can be relayed through communication lines so the sensors
can be situated anywhere in the world.

Digital and Analogue Data

Data can either be analogue or digital. Digital quantities have values, which jump from one to the next
without any ‘in between’ values. An on/off switch on a radio is a device that could be thought of as
digital because there is no state between ‘on’ and ‘off’, another example of digital data is the number of
students in a class; you cannot have 3½ students, i.e. digital data can be counted. Analogue data on the
other hand will vary in values, for example the temperature can be 10, 10.1, 10.01,10.001C and so on,
i.e. analogue data cannot be counted. In fact quantities, which have an infinite number of values, are
called analogue data.

For analogue data to be processed by a digital computer they need first to be converted into digital data
using an analogue to digital converter and vice versa.

28
Data Representation

Most computers are digital. They recognize only two discrete states: on and off. This is because
computes are electronic devices powered by electricity, which also has two states: on and off. The two
digits, zero and ones, easily can represent these two states. The digit (0) represents the electronic state off
(absent of electric charge) and the digit (1) represent the electronic state on (presence of an electric
charge).

The binary system is a number system that has just two unique digits, 0 and 1, call bits. A bit is the
smallest unit of data the computer can represent. When eight bits are grouped together as a unit, they
form a byte (character).

The combination of 0s and 1s that represent characters are defined by patterns called a coding scheme.
Two popular coding schemes are American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
most widely used coding system to represent data; personal computers and mid-range servers mainly use
it. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (ECDIC) used primarily on mainframe
computers.

ASCII and EBCDIC coding schemes are sufficient for English and Western European languages but are
not large enough for Asian and other languages that use different alphabets. Unicode is a coding scheme
capable of representing all the world’s current languages.

When you press a key on the keyboard, the electronic signal is converted into a binary form the computer
recognizes and is stored in memory. Every character is converted to its corresponding byte. The
computer then processes the data as bytes, which actually is a series of on/off electrical states. When
processing is finished, software converts the bytes back into numbers, letters of the alphabet, or special
characters so they can display on a screen or be printed. All of these conversions take place so quickly
that you do not realize they are occurring.

The Hierarchy of Data

The composition of data or commonly used terms is database, file, record, field and character. A
database contains files, a file contains records, a record contains fields and a field is made up of
characters.

A bit is the smallest unit of data the computer can recognize. Eight bits grouped together in a unit
comprises a byte. Each byte represents a single character, such as a number, letter, punctuation mark or
other symbol.

A field is a combination of one or more characters and is the smallest unit of data a user access. A field
name uniquely identifies each field. When you search for data in a database, you enter the field name.
Field names for the records in the Movie file are Movie ID, Title and Rating.

A database uses a variety of characteristics, such as data type and field size, to define each field. The
data type specifies the kind of data a field can contain and how the field is used.

Common data types include:

• Text – letters, numbers, or special characters
• Numeric – numbers only
• Currency – dollar and cent amounts or number containing decimal values (or Pula and tebe)
• Date – month, day, year and sometimes time information
• Memo – lengthy text entries

29
 • Yes/No – only the values Yes or No (two state)
• Hyperlink – Web address that links to a document or a Web page
• Object – picture, audio, video or a document created in other applications such as word processing
or spreadsheet

The field size defines the maximum number of characters a field can contain.

A record is a group of related fields. A movie record includes a set of fields about one movie. This
record might contain field names such as Movie ID, Title, Rating.

A key field, or primary key, is a field that uniquely identifies each record in a file. The data in a key
field is unique to a specific record. For example, the Movie ID field uniquely identifies each movie
because no two movies have the same Movie ID.

A data file, also often called a file, is a collection of related records stored on a disk such as a hard disk,
CD-ROM or DVD-ROM.

A database includes a group of related data file. A video rental store’s database, for example, might
have many individual files such as Customer file, a Movie file and a Rental file. With a DBMS, you can
access and relate the data in data files.

Method of Data Collection (Data Capture)

Data capture is the process of getting information into a structure in which it can be processed by the
computer.

There are various methods that can be used to capture data.

1. Key to disk is a system whereby data is collected in the form of a document and then typed into
the computer. The main problem with this method is that it takes some time, typing can also
introduce many errors. This method is only recommended if the number is small otherwise it is
time consuming.
2. Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) - with MICR the reader detects characters written
in magnetic ink. The problem here is that these characters are usually pre-printed (as on a
cheque) and only a small amount of data is typed onto the form before processing. Because of the
volume of data that needs to be input, this method would be no quicker than typing the data
normally. In addition the equipment needed is very expensive so only banks for clearing cheques
use it.
3. Optical mark reading (OMR) – with OMR the student would make marks on a multiple-choice
form. A machine called an optical mark reader is then able to read the marks and convert them
into characters in the student file. One of the main problems with optical mark forms is that they
have a high rejection rate. Optical mark readers are not too expensive to buy and the reading
speeds are quite high although the forms are difficult to design.
4. Barcode readers – Barcodes are suitable only for pre-printed information. You could not have a
barcode for a student’s detail since you would know these in advance. However, barcode readers
are cheep and accurate.
5. Optical character recognition (OCR) – with OCR the computer scans a page containing text,
looks at each character in turn and compares it with characters it has previously stored. Although
the reading speed is high, this method suffers from high rates of rejection and is suitable only for
reading material that has already been typed.
6. Magnetic decoding (Swipe machine) – used to enter information from information from credit
card and debit card.

Note: If a device other than a keyboard is used for data capture this would avoid typographical error.
30
Reasons for Coding Data

1. Codes are quicker to type in, both initially and for subsequent searches.
2. Using codes reduces the size of the files, which in turn increases the speed of searches and any
processes performed on the data.
3. Codes are often unique. For instance, if we gave each student a unique code number, we could
use this to search for a student’s details. Using a surname for a search might reveal several
students with the same name.

Validation is the process of comparing data with a set of rules or values to determine if the data is
correct.

Verification is the process of ensuring that errors are not made.

The importance of data entry checks is to ensure that data entered is entered correctly hence data integrity
being enforced.

Validation Check

Validity checks analyses entered data to help ensure that it is correct. Types of validation check:
1. Character checks make sure that the right type of characters has been entered. Such check detect
numbers where characters should been entered and vice versa.
2. Range checks are performed on numbers to make sure that they lie within a specified range.
3. Presence checks make sure that a field or fields in a database, which must not be null, are supplied
with data.
4. Consistency check tests the data in two or more associated fields to ensure that it is logical. For
example, a Due Date cannot occur earlier in time than a Rental Date.
5. Completeness check verifies that a required field contains data. In many application programs,
you cannot leave the Last Name field blank. The completeness check ensures data exist in the
Last Name field.
6. Check digit confirms the accuracy of a primary key value.
7. Check sum is a data transfer check, which may be sent with each block of data transmitted. All
the element in the block are added together to produce a single element known as a check sum,
and this is stored with the block and provides a check when the block is transferred. This type of
check ensures that all the blocks have been transferred.

Types of file access

Sequential access is used by tape storage, which refers to reading or writing data consecutively, hence
access time can be slow depending on the file required.

Random access is used by floppy disk, hard disk and compact disk. Random access means you can
locate a particular data item or file immediately, without having to move consecutively through items
stored in front of the desired data item or file.

Sequential access is much slower than direct access.

Types of Files

Master file is the most important file since it is the most complete and up-to-date version of a file. If a
master file is lost or damaged and it is the only copy, the whole system will break down.

31
Transaction file(s) are used to hold temporary data, which is used to update the master file. A
transaction file is a piece of the business, hence the name transaction file. Transaction file contain details
of all transactions that have occurred in the last period.

Backup or security file is a copy of the files kept in case the original is damaged or lost and cannot be
used. Because of the importance of the master file, backup copies of it should be taken at regular
intervals in case it is stolen, lost, damaged or corrupted.

The grandfather-father-son principles

There is always a slight chance that the data contained on a master file may be destroyed. It could be
destroyed by an inexperienced user, a power failure, fire or even by theft. For a large company the loss
of vital data could prove disastrous. But using the grandfather-father-son principle it is possible to
recreate the master file if it is lost.

The principle works like this. Three generations of files are kept. The oldest master file is called the
grandfather file and it is kept with its transaction file. These two files are used to produce a new master
file called the father file, which with its transaction file, is used to create the most up-to-date file, called
the son file.

32
Unit 8

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

A system development life cycle is a set of activities developers used to build an information system.

Stages in System Development Life Cycle

Initial study, System Analysis, System Design, Implementation, Evaluation & Maintenance

Initial Study

This is the first stage in the system development life cycle, which deals with:
➢ What is the purpose of the system and the data we need to enter into the system?
➢ What are the needs of the users and what information do they need to obtain from the system?
➢ What processing is required and what kind of searching, sorting, or calculating will be needed?

System Analysis

It may be very expensive to introduce or update a computer system and, therefore, it is important to
compare cost and benefits including the cost of hardware, software and training. It is this stage, which
will determine whether to proceed with the new system, or not.

System Design

This stage involves a number of tasks such as designing the output, input, files and database if applicable,
system controls and test plan.

Implementation

At this stage the actual system will be setup and testing of the system will be done to check if it does
what it was intended to do. It will also include training of users at all level.

It must be noted that sometimes a business before making a fully changeover will operate the new system
and the old system together until employees are comfortable with the new system then the old system is
eliminated this is called parallel running.

Importance of parallel running

➢ It allows users to become comfortable with the new system before the old system is remover
➢ To avoid any costly venture should the new system fail.

Evaluation and Maintenance

It is important to maintain the system in order to:

➢ Resolve problems which occur, despite earlier testing.
➢ Address changing needs.
➢ Take advantage of improvements in hardware and software as and when these become available.

Problems which might arises when converting paper base system to computer base system.

1. Reluctant of employees to accept changes

2. Lost of jobs by employees
3. Retraining of some workforce
4. Relocation of some workforce
33
 5. Increased running cost
6. High development cost

System Flowcharts

When a system analyst is developing a new computer system, his ideas need to be written down.
Frequently a pictorial representation of how the system will work is easier to understand and take in than
a lengthy text. A system flowchart is a diagram showing an overview of a complete system.
It will show:
• The tasks to be carried out in the new system, whether manual or by the computer
• The devices (disk drives, tape drives, terminals etc.) that are to be used in the system
• The media used for input, storage and output
• The files used by the system

Standard symbols used in system flowcharts:

34
Question 1

35
Question 2

36
Unit 9

Measures of Securing Data

Data security (data protection) is steps or measures taken to ensure that data is secure from corruption,
unauthorized access and misused.

Types of data security (data protection)

• Physical restriction
• Software restriction
• Database protection

Physical Restriction – This involve putting a security system to protect the computer’s hardware from
unauthorized personnel and taking steps to keep all hardware operational.
• Place guards at the strategic entry points in the computer centre.
• Close circuit monitors – television cameras and intercom systems can be connected to a central guard
and be used to monitor movement of persons in the computer centre.
• Emergency power should be available. UPS (un-interruptible power systems) should be install to
provide backup power when there is a power outage or power surge.
• All equipment should be cover with plastic cover when not in use in order to protect the equipment
from dust.

Software Restriction – Measures taken to prevent modification for personal gain or vandalism of the
computer software.
• Password – prevent unauthorized access of software
• Virus protection -

Database Protection – To protect data stored in database

• Backup and Recovery
• Fireproof Cabinet
• Archiving – This is the process of storing files as far back as four generation so that on the event that
a file and its backup is lost it can be recreated from its previous generation.
• Encryption – it the process of converting readable data into unreadable characters to prevent
unauthorized access.
• Firewall – is a security system consisting of hardware and/or software that prevents unauthorized
access to data and information on a network.

Need for backup procedures

Recover from:
• Virus attack
• Data lost
• System failure
• Data corruption

Backup methods

A full backup sometimes called an archival backup, copies all of the files in the computer. A full
backup provides the best protection against data loss because it copies all program and data files.
Performing a full backup can be time consuming.

A differential backup copies only the files that have changed since the last full backup.

37
An incremental backup copies only the files that have changed since the last full or last incremental
backup.

Types of Backup Advantages Disadvantages

Full Fast recovery method. Longest backup time.
All files are saved.
Differential Fast backup method. Recovery is time consuming because
Requires minimal storage the last full backup plus the
space to backup. differential backup are needed.
Incremental Fast backup method. Recovery is most time consuming
Requires minimal storage because the last full backup and all
space to backup. Only incremental backups since the last
most recent changes full backup are needed.
saved.

The use of backup procedure is to ensure that in the event of a disaster (lost of data or programs) full
operation can be restored to normal.

Computer Virus
A computer virus is a potentially damaging computer program that affects, or infects, a computer
negatively by altering the way the computer works without a user’s knowledge or permission.

Ways of infection
• Opening an infected file
• Running an infected program
• Booting the computer with an infected floppy disk drive

Effects of virus
• The available memory is less than what should be available (Computer operates slower)
• A program or file suddenly is missing
• An unknown program or file mysteriously appears
• The size of file changes without explanation
• A file becomes corrupted
• A program or files does not work properly

Method of eradication
Start computer with clean recovery disk then scan and remove virus from computer
Reformat hard disk to remove virus (extreme case)

Method of protection against viruses

Install an anti virus program and update it frequently
Avoid using floppy disk from outside source (scan for virus before using)
Scan download files from Internet before opening.

Health Risk Associated With Using Computer

Long-term computer use can lead to health complications.

Health risk
• Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) also called Repetitive stress injure (RSI) is an injury or disorder
of the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments and joints.
• Computer vision syndrome/Eyestrain is sore, tired, burning, itching or dry eyes caused by
prolonged staring at a display device.
• Lower back pain caused from poor posture.
38
 • Tendonitis is inflammation of a tendon due to some repeated motion or stress on that tendon.
• Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is inflammation of the nerve that connects your forearm to the
palm of your wrist.
• Computer addiction is when the computer consumes someone’s entire social life.
• Green computing involves reducing the electricity and environmental waste while using the
computer. Computer use often-waste resources such as electricity and paper.

Proper safety precautions

• Take frequent breaks during computer sessions to exercise your hands and arms
• Every 10 to 15 minutes, take an eye break, look into the distance and focus on an object for a few
seconds.
• Close your eyes and rest them for at least a minute.
• Use a glare screen
• Use large enough fonts.
• If you wear glasses, ask your doctor for computer glasses.
• Adjust the lighting.
• Sit on the chair properly and have a good posture while typing.
• Take a break every 30 to 60 minutes – stand up, walk around or stretch.
• Have work place designed ergonomically.
• Use computer and devices that comply with the ENERGY STAR program.
• Do not leave the computers and devices running overnight.
• Turn off your monitor, printer and other devices when not in use.
• Use paperless methods to communicate.
• Recycle paper.
• Buy recycled paper.
• Recycle toner cartridges.
• Recycle old computers and printers.
• Shop online (saves gas).
• Telecommute (saves gas).

Effects of computer on people

Positive
• The jobs replaced by computers are usually the mundane ones. People are free to do m ore
interesting tasks.
• High productivity enables people to work fewer hours and yet have the same standard of living.
A greater amount of leisure time will improve people’s quality of life.
• Other countries make use of IT. If we did not, our goods and services would become
uncompetitive and there would be even more unemployment.
• There are many things that would be impossible without the use of IT. Air-traffic control, credit
cards, and space travel are just some examples.
• New jobs are being created by the introduction of information technology, e.g. programming,
network managing, etc.
• More and more people are able to work from home, with the advantage of no travelling and
freedom of being able to live in any part of the country.
• Many industrial processes operate 24 hours a day and are continually being monitored and
controlled by computer.
• Computerised database occupies less office pace and provide quick access to information.
• Order entry check, airline booking is done at a fast rate.

Negative
• Life without IT is slower and less stressful.
39
 • Computers are cheaper than people so if a computer can do a job then it will be, leading to even
higher unemployment.
• The new jobs being created by the uses of IT are only for highly skilled and qualified people.
• The people who did the boring repetitive jobs now done by computers no longer have jobs.
• The storage of personal data held on computer has eroded people’s privacy.
• The gap will be widened between those countries able to afford the new technology and those that
can’t.
• There is the continual need to retrain and upgrade one self.

Computer Crime
Computer crime is illegal act involving a computer. Computer crime exists due to the growth of
information systems, the move away from cash transactions and the ease with which transactions now
take place.

Types of Computer Crime

1. Hacking – is the breaking into a computer by connecting to it and then logging in as a

legitimate user.
2. Use of computer time for non-company purposes – when an employee use company
resources for personal gain.
3. Software theft/Software piracy – is the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted
software. And
4. Hardware theft – is the act of stealing computer equipment and destroying computer
equipment.
5. Information theft – occurs when someone steals personal or confidential information.
6. Electronic fraud – is the use of computer or communication system to commit fraud for
financial gain.
7. Credit card fraud

Protecting against computer crime

1. Checking via phone of special terminal whether a credit card was stolen, make people key in
their Personal Identification (PIN) or using fingerprint.
2. The Copyright, Designs a Patents Act makes it a criminal offence to copy or steal software.
3. Implementation of The Computer Misuse Act which maid it a criminal offence for anyone to
access or modify computer-held data or software without authority or to attempt to do so.
4. Most firm have introduced stringent precautions to ensure the security of their computer
systems, and indeed under the provision of the Data Protection Act they are legally
required to do so.
5. Encryption of data and information
6. The use of firewall.

Task
1. Describe the need for skill upgrading
2. Outline ways in which skills upgrading can be achieved.
3. Describe positive and negative effects of using computer in organizations.

40
Unit 10

Data Communication and the Internet

Data communication is the transmission of data from one place to another via transmission channel.
Transmission channels commonly used are telephone lines, coaxial cable, fibre optic cables, microwave
links and communication satellites.

Communication Using Computer Technology

Telephone is a network whereby users use to transmit audio in the form of spoken words from one party
to another. It also allows user to leave an audio message should the party at the other end is not available
at the time of the call.

Facsimile transmission (fax machine) is a combination of a telephone and a photocopier in one. It

scans an image in much the same way as a photocopier; however, the copy is sent as electronic signals
over transmission lines to a receiving fax machine anywhere in the world. The receiving machine
converts the signal back to an image and prints it on paper. Fax messages can also be sent to and from
computer.

Cellular phone can be used as normal telephones to make or receive calls and also to send and receive
text messages. The latest cell phones also allow you to send and receive e-mail and digital photographs
and access the Internet for small pieces of data.

Teleconferencing (Video conferencing) involves communicating using a telephone, computer and video
camera (web camera). With this system people in different locations around the world are able to see and
hear each other in real time. You can therefore chat with friends or hold meetings without having to
travel. The difference between teleconferencing and video conferencing is that in teleconferencing often
video is not available.

Advantages
➢ Communicate form the convenience of ones home
➢ Traveling time saved

Disadvantages
➢ High cost to set-up
➢ Running cost can be expensive
➢ Unable to meet face to face physically

Electronic funds transfer (EFT): Automated teller machine (ATM) is examples of EFT at work where
by you are able to withdraw cash, deposit cash and pay utility bills. With electronic fund transfer, you
can pay for goods and services without money or cheques. Electronic funds transfer can be used with
debit card as well as credit card.

Types of check, which may be made to a credit care:

➢ Identity check: - If the holder of the card is the true owner
➢ Validity check: - If the card is expired or not.

41
Telecommuting means working from home. Unlike establishing a home business, where no commuting
is involved, a commuter has a job elsewhere to which he/she must commute regularly, perhaps daily. A
telecommuter travels to work by telecommunications rather than by car or bus, resulting in the saving of
time and reduction of pollution and traffic congestion.

Advantages
➢ Work form the convenience of ones home
➢ Traveling time saved
➢ Give more time to dome house activities
➢ Reduction of pollution
➢ Reduction of traffic congestion.
➢ Make it possible to hire disabled people
➢ Possibility of hiring the best employees, even if they live far away.

Disadvantage
➢ Managers worry that employees are not working because they cannot see them.
➢ High cost to set-up
➢ Workers fear that if they are out of sight the may be passed over for promotions.

Telemarketing system employs the telephone for contacting customers/suppliers and for trading
products.

Electronic Commerce also known as e-commerce is a financial business transaction that occurs over an
electronic network such as the Internet. Anyone with access to a computer, and Internet connections, and
a means to pay for purchased goods or services can participate in e-commerce. It virtually eliminates the
barriers of time and distance that slow traditional transactions. E-commerce transactions can occur
instantaneously and globally. This saves time for participants on both ends. You can purchase just about
any goods or services on the Web.

Web Publishing is the development and maintenance of Web pages where businesses and individuals
convey information to millions of people.

The Internet

The Internet (International Network) also called Net is a worldwide collection of network that links
millions of businesses, government agencies, educational institutions and individuals allowing them to
access, share and exchange information.

No one owns the Internet. No government or authority looks after its operations. The Internet consists of
independently maintained and administered networks. Each network on the Internet is responsible for
formulating its own policies, procedures and rules.

To connect to the Internet you need both hardware and software. The hardware requirements are: A
personal computer or workstation and a modem.

A standard telephone line can transmit only analogue data, whereas data produced by a computer is in
digital form. A modem is a device used to convert the digital data from the computer into analogue data
so that it can be transmitted over a telephone line.

You will also need access to a host computer (computer that is already on the network), which is made
available through an Internet Service Provider (ISP). This is a company that is directly connected to
the global network and gives you access to the Internet, usually for a fee. You dial into its computer and
it connects you to the Internet. You will need a communication link (via telephone, cable, satellite, etc.)

42
Communication using Internet

Electronic mail (e-mail) is the most popular and widely used service on the Internet today. It allows you
to communicate with friends, family and businesses all over the world. An e-mail program enables you
to send, receive and manage electronic messages (text, sound, video and graphics). To be able to send
and/ or receive e-mail, each user must have an e-mail address, which is unique to the user and consists of
two parts separated by the @ (‘at’) symbol. The first part is the user name, which can be a real name, a
shortened form of a real name or some made-up name. The second part is the domain name – that is, the
name of your ISP. The general from of an e-mail address is as follows: Username@Domainname users
can also use the free e-mail services offered by websites such as Yahoo, Excite and others to subscribe
for email address.

A possible e-mail address for Sally would be SallyJohnson@scsite.com which would read as follows
Sally Johnson at sc site dot com.

Advantage of e-mail
Message are sent instantly
Recipient can store, print, erase, edit or forward messages

Disadvantage
Parcels cannot be sent
Limited to persons with computer equipment and relevant software

News group is another way to enable a group of people with common interest to communicate with each
other. There are thousand of newsgroups on the Internet, on almost every imaginable topic. Most
newsgroups are open to membership.

Chat: - chatting on the Internet has become a favourite pastime for many people. You can enter any one
of the thousands of chat rooms that are present on the Internet. A chat room is a group of people with
common interests communicating with one another interactively, in real time.

Instant messaging: This enables you to chat privately with another person, again, in real time. You do
not enter a chat room, but ‘talk’ to the person directly.

Multimedia chat has created a new form in which you can communicate in real time. With multimedia
software you can use the microphone in computer to talk to another person anywhere in the world. If
each of you has a web camera (web cam) connected to your computer, you will also be able to see each
other.

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (WWW) is one of the numerous services available on the Internet. The World
Wide Web or Web consists of a worldwide collection of electronic documents. Each of these electronic
documents on the Web is called a Web page. A Web page can contain text, graphics, sound, and video
as well as built-in connections to other documents. A Web site is a collection of related Web pages.

Browsing the Web requires a Web browser or browser which is a software program that allows you to
access and view Web pages. The more commonly used Web browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer
and Netscape.

Home page is the starting page for a browser; it is similar to a book cover or table of contents for a Web
site. It provides information about the Web site’s purpose and content.

43
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) a unique address for a Web page; consists of a protocol, domain
name, and sometimes the path to a specific Web page or location on a Web page.

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a set of special codes, called tags that format a file for use
as a Web page.

Hyper text transfer protocol (http) is communications standard that enables page to transfer on the We.

Hyperlink is built-in connection to another related Web page or part of a Web page; also called a link.

Downloading is the process of receiving information, such as Web page, onto your computer from a
server on the Internet.

Uploading is the process of sending a file from y our personal computer to another system or network.

Intranet is a network that belongs to an organization and is accessible only by members of that
organization. All the features and capabilities of the Internet exist in the intranet except that the intranet
is restricted to the organization and its members.

44
Unit 11

Programming Concepts
Structured programming is a disciplined approach to writing programs that are clear, demonstrably
correct and easy to modify.

Top-down structured programming

Top-down design is the technique of breaking down a problem into the major tasks to be performed; each
of these tasks is then further broken down into separate subtask, and so on until each subtask is
sufficiently simple to be written as a self-contained module or procedure. The program then consists of
a series of calls to these modules, which may themselves call other module.

Procedure/module/subroutine is a section of a program that performs a single function.

Low-level languages are languages that are easy for the computer to understand but more difficult for the
programmer to understand. Assembly language and machine code are collectively called low-level
languages. Low-level language is machine dependent meaning that it runs only on a particular computer
or operating system.

Assembly language is low-level language written using mnemonics words that suggest meaning. An
assembler is required to translate these instructions into machine language.

Advantage of machine language: Fast execution speed and efficient use of memory.
Disadvantage: Writing machine language is tedious and programming errors are difficult to correct
(debug)

High-level languages are machine independent that is it can run on many different types of computers
and operating system. High-level language instructions are similar to English, which means that
programming is made easier and easier for programmers to understand. Examples of high-level language
are: COBOL, BASIC (Qbasic) and Pascal.

Translation programs are part of the system software and are used to convert the program commands
into machine code. There are three types of translation programs:
• Compilers
• Interpreters
• Assemblers

Compilers and interpreters are both programs that change high-level language instructions into machine
code, although the way they do this is different.

An interpreter reads a code statement, converts it to one or more machine language instructions, and
then executes those machine language instructions. It does this all before moving to the next code
statement in the program. Each time you run the source program, the interpreter translates and executes
it, statement by statement. An interpreter does not produce and object program.

A compiler converts the entire source program into machine language before executing it. The machine
language version that results from compiling in called object code or object program. The compiler
stores the object code on disk for execution later.

45
An assembler is a program, which converts assembly language source code into machine language the
computer understands.
Relationship between Source Code, Compiler and Object Code

Source Code Compiler Object Code

Source Code – These are programs written in either high-level language or assembly language.
Object Code – This is machine code program produce by a compiler.

Syntax errors – Errors reported when the rules of the languages are not obeyed.
Logical errors – Errors occur when the expected result of a program is not met. Examples are: incorrect
calculation, improper looping.
Testing – The process of checking a program for errors, using test data.
Test data – Data used as input to check a program for logical errors.
Dry run – This is when the programmer goes through the programming statement manually to check
what the program is doing.
Bug – This is an error in a program.
Debugging – This is the process of testing, locating and correcting errors by running the program.

Algorithm Pseudocode
Algorithm is the solution to any computing problem, which involves executing a series of actions in a
specific order. The procedure for solving a problem in terms of:
1. The actions to be executed, and
2. The order in which these actions are to be executed.

Consider the “rise-and-shine algorithm” followed by one junior executive for getting out of bed and
going to work:

Get out of bed.

Take off pyjamas.
Take a shower.
Get dressed.
Eat breakfast.
Carpool to work

This routine gets the executive to work well prepared to make critical decisions. Suppose, however, that
the same steps are performed in a slightly different order:

Get out of bed.

Take off pyjamas.
Get dressed.
Take a shower.
Eat breakfast.
Carpool to work

In this case, our junior executive shows up for work soaking wet.

Pseudocode is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop algorithms.

Pseudocode algorithms are English like instructions, which if followed exactly will produce a solution to
a given problem.
46
Pseudocode algorithm is not case sensitive, i.e. both capital and common letter yield similar result.

Statements used to construct:

Input statement
Read/Input are used to transfer data into variables thus into main memory.

Format: Read A, B
Read A
Read B
Input X, Y
Input X
Input Y

Output statement
Print/output is used to display result. i.e. if quotation marks is used, the information in the quotation is
displayed exactly as given in the quotation. However information outside of quotation marks, the value
of such information will be displayed.

Format: Print X, Y
Print “X + Y =”, A
Print “Hello”
Output SUM

Conditional Branching

The if then statement

If the condition is true, the statement following then is executed. Condition used:

Symbols
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
= Equal to
<> or != or  Not equal to

Format: IF <condition> THEN <statement>

The if then else statement

This statement is similar to the if then statement except that if the condition is false the statement
following the else is executed.

Format: IF <condition> THEN <statement 1> ELSE <statement 2>

If the condition is true statement 1 is executed;

If the condition is false statement 2 is executed.

Loops

This allows a process to be executed repeatedly.

47
The for loop

This is the simplest type of loop and this is used when we know or can calculate how many times a
process must be repeated.

Format:
1. For <counter = number 1 to number 2> Do <statements and process to be repeated>
2. For <counter = number 1 to number 2> Do step number 3 <statements and process to be repeated>

Where counter is the storage area that will change from value number 1 to number 2. On reaching
number 2 the program will make its final execution. Number 1 is the value that the counter is to start
with and number 2 is the value that it will end with. Number 3 is the value that the counter will increase
by each time.

The while loop

The while loop is usually used when we do not know how many times we are to repeat a loop. At the
onset you do not know how many times a program segment is to be repeated but you know that it is to be
repeated until something happens. Therefore, we will repeat the loop until something happens, i.e. until a
specific condition is met.

Format: WHILE <condition> DO <body or segment to be repeated> ENDWHILE

Here the segment section of program is repeated until the condition is false. That is once the condition is
true the loop will be repeated.

Program Flowchart
Symbols

PROCESS – Program instruction(s) that transform input(s) into

output(s)

INPUT/OUTPUT – Enter data or display information

DECISION – Condition that determines a specified path to flow

TERMINAL – Beginning of ending of program

48
 CONNECTOR – Entry from or exit to another part of flowchart on same page

Arithmetic Symbols used in Algorithm

= Means equal to * Means multiply
– Means subtract / Means divide
+ Means add

Read this algorithm

Set Power to 0
Set Number to 1
Read X
Read Y
WHILE
Power is less than Y
DO
Multiply Number by X
Increase Power by 1
ENDWHILE
Output the value of Number

(a) Using the data X = 2 and Y = 10, complete the following variable trace table.

Power Number X Y
0 1 2 10
1 2 2 10
2 4 2 10
3 8 2 10
4 16 2 10
5 32 2 10
6 64 2 10
7 128 2 10
8 256 2 10
9 512 2 10
10 1024 2 10
(4)
(b) What is the value of Power at the end?

Power ________________________________________________ (1)

(c) What is the output of this algorithm? _____________________________ (1)

(d) What has the algorithm worked out?

____________________________________________________________

49
 ____________________________________________________________ (2)

(e) What would happen if X was set to 3?

____________________________________________________________ (1)

1 Read this algorithm.

1 input a Month number between 1 and 12

2 Case Month of
3 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12 : Days = 31
4 4, 6, 9, 11 : Days = 30
5 2 : Days = 28
6 Otherwise Days = 0
7 End Case
8 If Days = 0 then
9 Print “Not valid Month”
10 Else output Days, “Days”

(a) What would be the outputs when the data for June (the sixth Month) and October
(the tenth Month) are input?

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________ [2]

(b) What is the purpose of line 6?

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________ [1]

2 The following algorithm is used to award grades in an examination. The examination consists
of two papers, which are given marks called Mark A and Mark B.

READ name, Mark A, Mark B

IF Mark A is greater than 70 THEN
IF Mark B is greater than 70 THEN
Grade is 1
ELSE
IF Mark B is greater than 40 THEN
Grade is 2
ELSE
Grade is fail
ENDIF
ENDIF
ELSE
IF Mark A is greater than 40 THEN
IF Mark B is greater than 70 THEN
Grade is 2
50
 ELSE
IF Mark B is greater than 40 THEN
Grade is 3
ELSE
Grade is fail
ENDIF
ENDIF
ELSE
Grade is fail
ENDIF
ENDIF
PRINT name, grade

For each of the following sets of data write down the output.

(a) John Williams, 80, 85 ___________________________________________________ [2]

(b) Mary Brown, 45, 60 ____________________________________________________ [2]

(c) Ian Ford, 40, 39 _______________________________________________________ [2]

4 This algorithm grades candidates on marks out of ten.

Input a Mark
Case Mark of
0,1,2,3 : Grade = Fail
4,5 : Grade = Pass
6,7 : Grade = Merit
8,9,10 : Grade = Distinction
Otherwise Mark = -1
End case
If Mark = -1 Then
Print “Not a Valid Mark”
Else Output Grade, “Grade”

(a) Dry run the algorithm for each of the following data and complete the table.

Input Output
0
5
99
[3]
5. Read this algorithm.

Input A, B
If A>B then
T=A
A=B
B=T
Endif
Output A, B

(a) Write down the output if the following two numbers are input:
41, 38
51
 ___________________________________________________________ [1]

(b) Explain the purpose of the variable T

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ [1]

(c) Explain why an algorithm is written as a subroutine (procedure) and stored in a program
library.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ [2]

6. Read this algorithm.

Set Total_1 to zero

Set Total_2 to zero
Set Counter to one
While Counter < eight
Counter = Counter + 1
Input Number
If Number > zero then Total_1 = Total_1 + Number
If Number < zero then Total_2 = Total_2 + Number
Endwhile
Output Total_1
Output Total_2

(a) Write down the output if the following set of numbers are input.
4, 1, -3, 2, -5, 0, 6, 9, 7
_________________________________________ [2]

(b) Modify the algorithm so that it will accept any number of numbers, 20 terminate the input
and the output is the total of all the number input except the value 20. [4]

7. Read this algorithm.

1 Set Total to zero

2 Set Counter to zero
3 Input first Rainfall
4 Repeat
5 Add Rainfall to Total
6 Add one to Counter
7 Input next Rainfall
8 Until Rainfall is less than zero
9 Divide Total by Counter
10 Output result

(a) Determine the result when the following data are input.
52
 20, 21, 25, 23, 21, -1
_______________________________________________ [2]

(b) State the purpose of line 8.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ [1]

8. Read this algorithm.

Set Total to zero

Input Number
For Count is one to Number
Input Mark
Add Mark to Total
Next Count
Output Total / Number

(a) Dry run the algorithm using the follow data.

5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

(i) Write down the value of Total _________________________________

(j) Write down the output _______________________________

[2]
(b) Rewrite the algorithm using a Repeat …Until structure. [3]

9. Read this algorithm.

Set Total to zero

Set Counter to zero
Input Number
Repeat
Add Number to Total
Add one to Counter
Input next Number
Until Counter is ten
Output Total

Rewrite the algorithm using the While … Do … Endwhile structure. [3]

10. Set A to 3
Set B to 5
Set Sum to 1
While A <= 70 do
A=A+B
B=B+A
Sum = Sum + B
Print A
End while
Print Sum

a) Copy and complete the trace table

53
 A B Sum
3 5 1

b) What is print by the algorithm?

11. Read this algorithm/

Read A, B, C
A=A+B
B=A+B
A=A–B
B=B+A–C
If A > B then
C=C+A–B
Else
C=C–A+B
End If
Print A, B, C

What does the algorithm print when the following data is used?

a) 1, 2, 3
b) 3, 1, 4

12. Given the following algorithm

X= 10
Y= 2
Z= 20
While Y < 100 do
X= X + 5
Y=Y+X
Z=Z+Y
Endwhile
Print X, Y
Print Z

a) Copy and complete the trace table

X Y Z
10 2 20
[5]
b) What is printed by the algorithm [2]

13. Given the following algorithm.

A=1
B=2
C=3
For X = 1 to 5
A=A+B+X
B=A+B+X
C=C+B+X
Print X, A
Endfor
Print B, C
54
 a) Copy and complete the trace table
A B C
1 2 3
[5]
b) What is printed by the algorithm [6]

14. Write an algorithm to read any two numbers, the first in A and the second in B and output the larger
number. [4]

15. Write an algorithm to read any two numbers, the first in X and the second in Y, interchange the
values then output the new result. [5]

16. Write an algorithm to read any ten numbers, calculate their sum and print it as well as the highest
number in the list. [7]

17. Write an algorithm to read a list of integer until the number 999 is encounter. The algorithm must
print the average of the numbers, the amount of numbers that is less than 30 and the amount of six in
the list. [10]

18. Write an algorithm to read A, B and C and print the largest number in the list. [5]

55
Unit 12

Computer Control

These applications include:

➢ Industrial processes, e.g. chemical manufacturing, car wash;

➢ Robotics;
➢ Transport control, e.g. traffic lights, pelican crossing (pedestrian crossing), car park ticketing,
automatic train level crossing barriers.

Computer can be used to control machines and processes.

Input devices constantly monitor and measure data and, if necessary, the computer can send signals to
output devices to affect the machine or process. Response is immediate and is said to happen in real
time.

The computer will have a control program to analyse the input data and to decide whether changes to the
process have to be made.

A record will be kept of both the input data and output control signals so that the process or machine’s
performance can be analysed over a period of time.

Components of a control system

➢ Storage for program and data
➢ A control program which can send control signals and deal with feedback from sensors
➢ Input port to receive data from sensors
➢ Output port to send control signals
➢ Interfaces to convert signals between the processor and the rest of the system.

Microprocessor Control Applications

Microprocessors are found in every day items such as digital watches, calculator, cars, cameras, domestic
appliances – washing machine etc. They are usually built in to the machine and dedicated to one
purpose.

Advantages

(a) to the manufacturer

➢ Fewer parts to assemble.
➢ Cheep.
➢ Reliable and therefore improve quality control
➢ Fewer breakdowns and repairs,

(b) to the customer

➢ They give the product more versatility
➢ Robust and therefore fewer repair bills.
➢ Lower power consumption.
➢ Small, quick and cheap to buy.

Question

What is the difference between a microprocessor and microcomputer?

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Process Control

Computers can be found in control in process industries such as chemical plants, paper mills, brickworks,
oil refineries, where raw materials are processed into finished goods.

During the conversion process the computer will monitor and control such variables as pressure,
temperature, rate of flow etc. Control has to be fast and accurate and in these large-scale process systems
hundreds of sensors and activators may be in use, a task that would be humanly impossible to monitor.

Benefits
➢ Sound alarm and if necessary shut off the process: some process can be very dangerous and fires
or explosions might otherwise result.
➢ Monitor and maintain quality control, e.g. where it is critical that the right mix of ingredients go
into a drug.
➢ Keep a record of the process – so that machine performance can be assessed. This helps planned
maintenance and replacement decisions.
➢ Provide the optimum output at the lowest price.

Transport System Control

Many transport system are now under computer control.

Examples include the

➢ Dock railway in London
➢ Airport air traffic control
➢ City traffic lights

In many traffic lights systems small clocks switch the lights at regular intervals. Some clock controllers
are designed to vary the frequency of change according to traffic direction at rush hours. However, if an
accident or a special event (like a big football match) occurs the clock-based system cannot respond to
actual traffic flows and jams can result. Many cities and towns have therefore installed computer-
controlled traffic light systems. Sensor pad under the road detect traffic flows and this data is sent to a
computer, which send control signals to the traffic lights to vary the timing, thereby relieving any hold-
ups.

A sensor is a monitoring device, which measures some physical quantity and sends signals back to the
processor.

Application of sensors

A burglar alarm system

➢ A small switch in the hinge of the outside door and opening window, which sends a signal when it
is opened.
➢ An infrared sensor in the kitchen doorway, which sends a signal when the beam is interrupted.
➢ A heat sensitive sensor in a corner of the lounge, which reacts to the presence of a person in the
room.

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Automation is the use of machines that need little or no human control. Automation is used in day-to-
day life such as the washing of clothing and the crushing of food items (blending) etc.

Robotics

A robot is a device, which can be programmed to do work which has to be done by people.

In small operations, an electric monitor called a stepper motor can be found. This can be precisely
controlled as the motor rotates through an exact angle each time it is sent a pulse. It can be run
continuously at varying speeds and movement in any direction is possible.

Ways in which a computer can control a robot

➢ A programmer writing a program
➢ A human operator leads the robot arm through a learning sequence of events and the computer
record this. The computer can then direct the robot/arm to repeat exactly the same sequence more
quickly, without getting tired and without making mistakes.
➢ Use of sensors in robot (this improve safety, adaptability and allow feedback)

Jobs which may be done by robots in car assembly

➢ Paint spraying
➢ Welding

Advantages of robots
➢ They can carry out a task repeatedly for hours without stopping.
➢ They can operate where humans cannot easily go
➢ They do not make errors due to tiredness of lack of concentration.

Disadvantages of robots
➢ High cost of purchase
➢ Not as versatile as people – they can only cope with a particular situation they are built and
programmed for.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the application of human intelligence to computers. AI technology can
sense your actions and, based on logical assumptions and prior experience, will take the appropriate
action to complete the task.

Examples of AI application:
➢ Expert system
➢ Problem solving
➢ Robot control
➢ Intelligent database querying
➢ Pattern recognition

Expert systems (also called knowledge base system) are computer programs that attempt to replicate
the performance of a human expert on some specialised reasoning task. They are able to store and
manipulate knowledge so that they can help a user to solve a problem or make a decision.

The main features of an expert system are:

➢ It is limited to a specific domain (area of expertise)
➢ It is typically rule based
➢ It can reason with uncertain data
➢ It delivers advice
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 ➢ It explains its reasoning to the user

Organisation can use AI to make decision by supplying the information requested through a series of
relevant questions and the knowledge base system will then analyses the questions and then make a
decision.

Multi-user System

A multi-user system is one where a number of users with terminals work on-line to the same computer at
the same time. Each terminal user in a multi-user system is able to interact with the computer as if he or
she were the only user. The computer is so fast compared with the terminal that it can do work for all of
them and still give each user a fast response.

Examples of application suitable for multi-user system:

➢ Airline booking
➢ Teller banking

Data Logging

Data logging is the automatic recording of data as it is produced. Data acquisition is the capture and
storing of data for a data logging system.

AUTOMATED SYSTEM

An automated system is a system where you provide the input, the machine or computer carries out the
process and provide you with the output.

Examples
• Washing machine (water and cloths set control)
• Automated camera
• Central heating programmer
• Program compact disc player
• Program video recorder to record a series of television programmes.
• Automated systems in industry
• Car manufacture is almost completely automated the centre of every manufacturing plant is the
assembly line.
• Automatic harvesting of mushrooms.

Why do we use automated systems?

▪ They can carry out the process much faster than a human can.
▪ The tasks that they are programmed to do are often boring or repetitious
▪ They can be used in places where it would be harmful or dangerous for people
▪ They are more efficient than people because they can work all day without a break.
▪ They are flexible because they can be program to carry out different tasks.
▪ They are more accurate than people and can do finely detailed work without getting tired and
making mistakes.

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Types of Control

The two types of control, which can be used on any automated system, are
Open loop and Closed loop.

Open loop—The processor is instructed to perform a task and it doesn’t stop until it has finished the task.
Example: washing machine
A toaster
Traffic light.

Closed loop control systems

It uses one or more sensors to detect what is going on around it and it can change what it’s doing
depending on the information it gets from the sensors. This method of passing information from a sensor
to a control system is called feedback

Sense Decision Action

Example: An automated kettle

An oven
A refrigerator

Implication of using automated system

Social implication
Technical implication
Economic implication

Social Implication

Quite a few workers will lose their jobs because a computer can do it quicker and cheaper. Some these
people can be retained for other jobs like maintaining the automated system

People will have more leisure time especially people who used to do boring repetitive and dangerous
jobs.

Using a computer keyboard and a mouse for long period of time can be dangerous—you can repetitive
strain injury in your wrists and hand. You can also get a severe eye strain by looking at a screen for
hours.

Technical Implications

▪ The moving parts of the machine must be covered so that no one can be hurt when they are
operating the machine.
▪ Robot vehicles are programmed to move slowly so that people can get out their way
▪ Robot vehicles are fitted with sensors to detect collisions.

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Economic implications

They are expensive to install.

Many businesses have changed to automated system in spite of the costs involved – why?

Unlike people, automated system don’t demand wage rises or costly facilities ( like a canteen) while they
are working or go on holiday, so the employers hope that by reducing the number of employees they will
save money in a few years. If the automated system works properly, the employers will also gain because
more goods will be manufactured in the same time and for the same cost. This is known as increased
productivity.

Quality Control

Using automated systems the quality of a product can be kept consistent.

Sensors and feedback

A sensor is a monitoring device, which measures some physical quantity and sends signal back to the
processor.
An input port is a connecting point on a computer through which it can receive signals from sensors and
switches.
Sensors used may be
▪ Simple digital devices sending a binary 0 or 1 signal.
▪ Analogue devices giving a varying value which it can receive signals sensors and
switches.

Examples of Sensors
1. A thermocouple for measuring temperature is analogue sensor.
2. A pressure pad at a traffic light—This produce a signal if a car goes over it. It is a digital sensor
because it is either on or off.
3. An analogue light sensor – Responds to the amount of light falling on it .
4. Light sensor—used to detect low light levels so that streets lighting is turned on. It is also used to
detect the light reflected from a bar code.
5. Push switch—used to turn on interior light inside a car when the door is opened.
6. Temperature sensor—Used in the central heating systems to keep the temperature of a house
constant.
7. Proximity sensor—Is made of two halves. If the halves are moved away from each other then a
signal is activated. You often see these sensors on windows. So that if the window is opened the two
halves of the sensor are separated and an alarm is activated.
8. Position sensor—detects the angle of a spindle. It could be used to feedback the position of a robot.
9. pH Sensor—A pH sensor is used to find out how basic or acidic a solution is.
10. Humidity sensor—Used to determine the amount of moisture present in the air or perhaps in soil.

Application of Sensors
A burglar alarm system
1. A small switch in the hinge of the outside door and opening window sends a signal when it
is opened.
2. An infra-red sensor in the kitchen doorway sends a signal when the beam is interrupted.
3. A heat sensitive sensor in a corner of the lounge, which reacts to the presence of a person in
the room.
Feedback means using output from a system to influence the input.
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Feedback, which is used to keep a system stable, is called negative feedback

Process control

Process control means automatic control of an industrial process.

Characteristics of process control

1. It is a real time operation. Input from sensors is processed and control signals are send back almost
immediately
2. It is an example of the use of feedback—The sensor input is used to adjust the process if it is out of
balance.
3. The computer usually controls the supply of materials and the timing of each part of the process.

Requirements for process control

1. A controller – usually a dedicated computer or a microprocessor –based circuit

2. Sensors to provide information on the process under control.
3. Actuators to carry out control actions in response to signals from the processor
4. Display devices so that a human operator can check the system.
5. A printer to provide hard copy when required.

A digital signal

An analogue signal

Transducers.
A transducer is device, which changes an external physical input (temperature, pressure or light) into an
analogue signal. This signal can be fed into a computer via an interface. Temperature sensors, strain
gauges and photocells are all transducers.

Digitisers.
A digitiser converts a visual image from a video or television camera into a digital form that the
computer can process. Modern video cameras use a special integrated circuit or chip that is sensitive to
light. This is another example of a transducer.

Advantages of introducing computer to control processes

1. Lower labour cost:

-Fewer operators and maintenance staff are required.
- Maintenance work can be put out to contract
2. A more flexible system –In this the product can be change to suit the customer.
3. More reliable-microprocessors rarely fail and are early replaced.
4. Better quality- quality of raw materials can more easily be monitored.
-Test can be carried out at various stages of the process.
5. Improved safety-Control is improved at all stages.
- Sensors can be put in places where it would be unpleasant or dangerous for a person to go.
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 6. Better condition for workers;
- More interesting work
- Possibly higher pay
- Cleaner, less hostile conditions.

Disadvantages

1. Less staff required- meaning there will be redundancy for some.

2. Remaining staff will need retraining.
3. Other skilled staff will be required and may be difficult to find.
4. High cost of equipment and software.

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