SMART AGRICLUTURE

Introduction

The term smart agriculture refers to the usage of technologies like Internet of Things,
sensors, location systems, robots and artificial intelligence on your farm. The ultimate goal is
increasing the quality and quantity of the crops while optimizing the human labour used.

Today, smart agriculture technologies are becoming widespread in many areas from early
warning systems to sensors measuring soil, air temperature and humidity, and robots used in every
stage of production. Thanks to the Internet of Things concept, agricultural production is also
effectively changing.

Example technologies used in smart agriculture are:

 Precision irrigation and precise plant nutrition

 Climate management and control in greenhouses
 Sensors – for the soil, water, light, moisture, for temperature
 management
 Software platforms
 Location systems – GPS, satellite, etc
 Communication systems – based on mobile connection, LoraWan, etc
 Robots
 Analytics and optimization platforms

The connection between all these technologies is the Internet of Things – this is a mechanism for
connectivity between sensors and machines, resulting in a complex system that manages your farm
based on data received. Thanks to this system, farmers can monitor the processes on their farms and
take strategic decisions remotely – from their tablet, phone or other mobile device – without being on
the open fields, in their greenhouse, orchard, vineyard, etc.

1. Data collection
The sensors installed at all critical places in the farm gather and transmit data about the soil,
air, etc
2. Diagnostics
The data collected is analyzed by the system and conclusions are made regarding the status of
the object or process monitored. Potential problems get identified.
3. Decision making
Based on the problems identified in the previous steps, the software platform and/or a human
managing the platform decides on actions that need to be taken.
4. Actions
The actions identified in the previous step are performed. A new measurement on the soil, air,
moisture, etc is performed by the sensors and the whole cycle starts again.
 The result from this automated smart farming process is – high precision and 24/7 control,
eventually leading to considerable savings in all key resources used – water, energy, fertilizers,
time spent by strategic people, time spent by lower-qualification human resources.

Customers using ONDO Smart agriculture solution on their farms can save up to 85% in water
consumed and up to 50% in energy consumed. They also report up to 40% increase in crop
yield, while reducing the cost of fertilization and chemical treatment, and up to 60% less losses
resulting from human error.

Smart farming is a management concept focused on providing the agricultural industry with
the infrastructure to leverage advanced technology – including big data, the cloud and the internet of
things (IoT) – for tracking, monitoring, automating and analyzing operations. Also known as
precision agriculture, smart farming is software-managed and sensor-monitored. Smart farming is
growing in importance due to the combination of the expanding global population, the increasing
demand for higher crop yield, the need to use natural resources efficiently, the rising use and
sophistication of information and communication technology and the increasing need for climate-
smart agriculture.

Smart farming technologies

The intelligent farm includes the use of technology such as:

 Sensors for soil scanning and water, light, humidity and temperature management.
 Telecommunications technologies such as advanced networking and GPS.
 Hardware and software for specialized applications and for enabling IoT-based solutions,
robotics and automation.
 Data analytics tools for decision making and prediction. Data collection is a significant part of
smart farming as the quantity of data available from crop yields, soil-mapping, climate change,
fertilizer applications, weather data, machinery and animal health continues to escalate.
 Satellites and drones for gathering data around the clock for an entire field. This information is
forwarded to IT systems for tracking and analysis to give an “eye in the field” or “eye in the
barn” that makes remote monitoring possible.

 The combination of these technologies facilitates machine-to-machine (M2M) derived data.

This data feeds into a decision support system so that farmers can see what is happening at a
more granular level than in the past. For example, by precisely measuring variations within a
field and adapting the strategy accordingly, farmers can greatly increase the effectiveness of
pesticides and fertilizers and use them more judiciously. Similarly, smart farming techniques,
help farmers better monitor the needs of individual animals and adjust their nutrition to
prevent disease and enhance herd health.

Benefits of smart farming

 By making farming more connected and intelligent, precision agriculture helps reduce overall
costs and improve the quality and quantity of products, the sustainability of agriculture and
the experience for the consumer. Increasing control over production leads to better cost
management and waste reduction. The ability to trace anomalies in crop growth or livestock
health, for instance, helps eliminate the risk of losing yields. Additionally, automation boosts
efficiency. With smart devices, multiple processes can be activated at the same time, and
automated services enhance product quality and volume by better controlling production
processes.
 Smart farming systems also enable careful management of the demand forecast and delivery
of goods to market just in time to reduce waste. Precision agriculture is focused on managing
the supply of land and, based on its condition, concentrating on the right growing parameters
– for example, moisture, fertilizer or material content – to provide production for the right
crop that is in demand. The types of precision farming systems implemented depend on the
use of software for the management of the business. Control systems manage sensor input,
delivering remote information for supply and decision support, in addition to the automation
of machines and equipment for responding to emerging issues and production support.

Is smart farming the future of agriculture?

 Smart farming and IoT-driven agriculture are laying the groundwork for a “third green
revolution,” which refers to the combined application of information and communications
technologies. This includes devices such as precision equipment, IoT sensors and actuators,
geo-positioning systems, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and robots.
 IoT technology helps better control agricultural processes to reduce production risks and
enhances the ability to foresee production results, which helps farmers better plan and
distribute product. Data about exact batches of crops and the quantity of crops to harvest can
help farmers cut down on labor and waste, for example.
 Additionally, in a number of sectors, including agriculture, service providers and mobile
operators are modernizing their network infrastructure, bringing network resources to the
edge and integrating far distances through technologies such as small cells and
massive MIMO to get ready for the 5G roll-out.

Recent IoT-Agriculture Project Areas are given below,

 Soilmonitoring system
 Harvesting equipment
 Disease management
 Smarter irrigation system
 Safety storage of harvested crops

UNIT –I SOIL SCIENCE

Nature and Origin of soil

Soil is a naturally occurring substance forming the thin uppermost layer of the earth’s surface made
by the accumulation of the weathered materials on which plants and animals live.

The soil is defined as the thin uppermost part of the earth’s surface consisting of water, air, organic,
and mineral matters made by the accumulation of the weathered materials on which plants and
animals do live.

Other scholars have defined soil as a natural body resulting from the interrelationship between
several; physical, biological, and chemical processes all of which vary according to the different
natural environments.

Properties of Soil: Physical and Chemical Properties, Types

Properties of Soil: Soil is defined as the topmost layer of the earth’s surface that supports life
and is rich in minerals and microorganisms that cover the entire land visible to us. All living
creatures, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, grow and reside on the soil.

We notice different types of soil based on colour, texture, and composition in different places.
The varieties of vegetation in different places are evidence of different types of soil. Soil has
various physical, chemical, and biological properties. Based on these categories,

the soil is classified into sandy, clayey, and loamy based on some physical properties like texture,
colour, and water-holding capacity. Some chemical properties like pHpH, salinity, organic matter
content, etc., also decide the soil type.

Many microorganisms like an earthworm and some other bacteria live in the soil and play a vital
role in increasing soil fertility. In this article, let’s discuss everything about the different
properties of soil in detail.

Properties of soil

1. Texture. The texture of the soil depends upon the relative amount of these particles. Clay has the
smallest sized particles.
2. Absorption of water. Water holding capacity in different types of soils is different. Soil absorbs
water because it is porous.
3. Moisture. Texture decides the water holding capacity of the soil. The soil has some amount of
water inside it as a moisture.
4. Colour. Soils are of different colours. They are red white and black. The red colour of the soil is
due to the presence of iron oxide.
5. Soil pH. Soil can be acid, alkaline or neutral. Some plants grow in acidic soil (pH below 7) such
as potatoes and kumara.
Benefits or importance of soil

Medium for plant growth.

Soil is where most plants grow. Soil provides anchorage for the plants as well as protection of
roots from damage. It is where or a medium through which water, air and nutrients are made
available to plants. The well-aerated soil facilitates the absorption of water and nutrients from the
soil by plants.

Soil support animal life.

As soil support plant life it also support animal life because plants are the source of foods to
animals and this is most for herbivores. Also some animals eat soil as food in form of salt licks for
example pregnant women who lack some minerals in their bodies.

Soil provide habitat for living organisms

In the soil there are some animals living there example burrowing animals like rodents,
earthworms and termites.

Provide sites for agricultural activities

The fertile soil promotes agriculture activities, both animal husbandry and crop cultivation.
This is because soil supports the growth of pasture for animals.

Provide settlement
Soil influences distribution of settlement for example the areas with good fertile soil are
densely populated compared to the areas with poor soil.

Soil provide building materials

Soil is used in making bricks, tiles and white wash. All these materials are used in building
houses, bridges etc. Also soil is used directly in road construction

Source of minerals
There are some minerals found in soil that can be extracted for commercial purposes.
Also it is used to manufacture fertilisers as it contain minerals for example the fertilisers that contain
phosphate e.g. In Minjingu (Manyara) region.

It provides raw materials for pottery and ceramics

Soil is used in making pots and these help to provide income to those who engage in this
activity.
 Soil Minerals

Minerals are natural inorganic compounds with definite physical, chemical, and crystalline properties.
They are classified as primary or secondary, silicates or nonsilicates, and crystalline or non-crystalline
minerals. Primary minerals have not been substantially altered chemically since deposition or crystallization
from molten lava and are usually found in the sand and coarse silt fractions. Secondary minerals form as a
result of the weathering of primary minerals and are found in the clay and fine silt fractions.

Classification and Distribution of Minerals Minerals are divided into eight classes depending upon
their chemical composition, and specifically their dominant anion or anionic group. The classes include:

• native elements; • sulfides; • oxides and hydroxides; • carbonates, nitrates, and borates; • sulfates, chromates,
and molybdates; • phosphates, arsenates, and vanadates; and • silicates.

Components or Composition of Soil

Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient management. While soil minerals and
organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what readily provides nutrients for plant uptake.

Soil air, too, plays an integral role since many of the microorganisms that live in the soil need
air to undergo the biological processes that release additional nutrients into the soil.Soil is composed
of both organic and inorganic matter, and it is essential for life on earth to exist
Soil is composed of :

1.Mineral Particles
Mineral particles are the largest ingredient and make up approx 45% of soils. They are the
original rock that got broken down by weathering and erosion to form the basis of soil.

The type of rock that was broken down to form it is called the parent rock. The broken-down
rock produces minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and potassium in the soil on which the plants
feed.The parent material influences the soil color, depth, texture, and pH value.

2.Organic Matter
Organic matter is decayed vegetation that is broken down by microorganisms in the soil to
form humus.
Humus is a dark jelly-like substance that binds the soil together and improves its texture. It increases
the soil’s ability to retain moisture.
The color of the soil is an indication of the amount of organic material it contains with darker soils
having more organic content.

Importance of soil organic matters

 help to provide nutrient to soil organisms
 it act as a major reservoir of plant nutrients
 it improves soil structure
 it influence soil temperature
 it reduces the risk of soil erosion
 it increases water holding capacity of the soil
 it make nutrients exchange between soil and the root of the plant easier

How to improve soil organic matters

 by recycling crop residue back to field without wasting and burning
 by application of compost
 through mulching organic wastes
 by using green manures and cover crops
 by use of crop rotation
 by reducing soil tillage
 by avoiding or preventing soil erosion
 by applying organic manures

Components of soil organic matters
 Living organisms (soil biomass)
 The remains of microorganisms that once inhabited the soil
 The remains of plants and animals
 Organic compounds that have been decomposed within the soil and, over thousands of years,
reduced to complex and relatively stable substances commonly called humus
As organic matter decomposes in the soil, it may be lost through several avenues.Since organic
matter performs many functions in the soil, it is important to maintain soil organic matter by adding
fresh sources of animal and plant residues, especially in the tropics where the decomposition of
organic residues is continuous throughout the year.

Soil Air and Water

Air is vital for the survival of micro-organisms and without these, there would be a shortage
of humus. Plants cannot survive without water present in the soil.Mineral particles are soluble in
water and the roots of plants can only absorb the nutrients after they have been dissolved.

In nutrient management, a proper balance between soil water and soil air is critical since both
water and air are required by most processes that release nutrients into the soil.
 Soil water is particularly important in nutrient management. In addition to sustaining all life
on Earth, soil water provides a pool of dissolved nutrients that are readily available for plant
uptake.Therefore, it is important to maintain proper levels of soil moisture.

Soil water is important for three special reasons:

The presence of water is essential for all life on Earth, including the lives of plants and organisms in
the soil.

 Water is a necessity for the weathering of soil. Areas with high rainfall typically have highly
weathered soils. Since soils vary in their degree of weathering, it is expected that soils have
been affected by different amounts of water.
 Soil water is the medium from which all plant nutrients are assimilated by plants. Soil water,
sometimes referred to as the soil solution, contains dissolved organic and inorganic
substances and transports dissolved nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
calcium, to the plant roots for absorption

Importance or Roles of soil organic matter

 Organic Matter creates a granular condition of soil which maintains favorable condition of
aeration and permeability.
 Water holding capacity of soil is increased and surface runoff, erosion etc., are reduced as
there is good infiltration due to the addition of organic matter.
 Surface mulching with coarse organic matter lowers wind erosion and lowers soil
temperatures in the summer and keeps the soil warmer in winter.
 organic matter serves as a source of energy for the microbes and as a reservoir of nutrients
that are essential for plant growth and also hormones, antibiotics.
 Fresh organic matter supplies food for earthworms, ants and rodents and makes soil PH
readily available in acid soils.
 Organic acids released from decomposing organic matter help to reduce alkalinity in soils;
organic acids along with released CO2 dissolve minerals and make them more available.
 Humus (a highly decomposed organic matter) provides a storehouse for the exchangeable and
available cations.
 It acts as a buffering agent which checks rapid chemical changes in pH and soil reaction.

Factors affecting the formation of soil organic matters

  Climate: Temperature and rainfall exert a dominant influence on the amounts of nutrients
and Organic matter found in soils.
 Temperature: The Organic Matter content of comparable soils tend to increase if one moves
from warmer to cooler areas. The decomposition of Organic matter is accelerated in
warm climates as compared to cooler climates. For each 10 C decline in mean annual
temperature, the total Organic matter and nutrients increases by two to three times.
 Rainfall: There is an increase in Organic Matter with an increase in rainfall. Under
comparable conditions, the Organic matter increase as the effective moisture becomes
greater.
 Nature of Vegetation: The total organic matters is higher in soils developed under
grasslands than those under forests.
 Soil texture: Fine textured soils are generally higher in Organic matter than coarse textured
soils
 Drainage: Poorly drained soils because of their high moisture content and relatively poor
aeration are much higher in Organic matter than well drained soils.
 Cropping and Tillage: The cropped lands have much low N and Organic matter than
comparable virgin soils. Modern conservation tillage practices helps to maintain high Organic
matter levels as compared to conventional tillage.
 Rotations, residues and plant nutrients: Crop rotations of cereals with legumes results in
higher soil Organic matter. Higher Organic matter levels, preferably where a crop rotation is
followed.

what is soil texture

Soil texture is one of the physical properties of soil along with soil structure, soil color, soil
temperature, soil porosity, and others.

Soil texture can be defined as the coarseness or fineness of the soil determined by the relative
proportion of soil particles of different diameters.The size of soil particles can make the soil coarse-
textured, medium-textured, and fine-textured.The texture of the soil can be assessed by either sense
of feel method or particle analysis method.

Methods of assessing soil texture

Sense of feel method

this method is done in the field in which soil sample is rubbed, preferably in wet condition between
fingers, and may give any of the following results;
  gritty feel – this imply the soil is of coarse texture as its particle are large in size and is
recognized as sand soil.
 flour feel – the soil is slightly fine or medium texture as its particles are medium in size and is
recognized as silt soil.
 plastic feel – the soil is of fine texture as its particles are quite small and is known as clay
soil.

Particle analysis method

This method is more accurate as it is done in the laboratory and involves recognizing the texture of
the soil by measuring the size of soil particles in the soil sample.
Diameter of the particle (mm) Name of soil

Less than 0.002 clay

0.002 – 0.02 silt

0.02 – 0.2 Fine sand

0.2 – 2 Course sand

2 – 20 Fine gravel

20 – 200 gravel

importance of soil texture

 It influences other physical soil properties of soil like; soil permeability, soil structure, soil
porosity, soil water retention capacity, and so forth.
 Soil texture influence soil resistance to erosion. Erosion is easier to the soil which is coarse-
textured as their particles are loose.
 It determines the relative penetration of plant roots in the soil. Where the soil particles are
large, roots can penetrate more easily than they do in fine grained soil which are usually
compact.
 Soil texture determine the infiltration rate of water into soil. Infiltration rate is easier in
coarse-textured soil compared to fine textured soil as its particles are compacted.
 Lastly, soil texture influence soil fertility as it determine the ability of soil to hold nutrients
and water for plant use

Soil Reaction
 Soil reaction affects the availability of nutrients to plants. Soil reaction affects indirectly in
availability of nutrients to plants as soil organism do not function well in acid and alkali soil. Soil
organism do their function at their best within a pH range 6.0-7.5.

In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Types of Soil Reaction 2. Soil pH 3. Factors
Controlling Soil Reaction 4. Influence.

Types of Soil Reaction:

One of the outstanding physiological characteristics of the soil solution is its reaction. Soil
reaction influences many physical and chemical properties of soil. The growth and activity of plant
and soil organisms depend on soil reaction and the factors associated with it.
There can be three types of soil reaction as follows:
(i) Acidity:
Soil acidity is common in regions where precipitation is high enough to leach appreciable
amounts of exchangeable bases from the surface layers of the soil. The two adsorbed captions such
as Hydrogen and Aluminium are largely responsible for soil acidity. The acid soil is generally found
in humid region. The factors which will help in the release and removal of bases will help in the
development of acidity of soil. If the hydrogen (H +) ion becomes more than hydroxyl (OH– ) ion in
the soil solution, the soil becomes acidic.
A highly acidic soil may have pH 4.5 and low calcium and magnesium, high solubility of
iron, manganese, aluminium etc., but low availability of nitrogen and phosphorus. The activity of
microorganism responsible for nitrification is adversely affected in acid soil. Generally limes are
used for reclamation of acid soil.
(ii) Alkalinity:
The soil that contains absorbed sodium to interfere with the growth of most crop plant is
known as alkali soil. The amount of exchangeable sodium in great quantities in the soil makes the
soil alkalinity. The sodium ion easily displaced the calcium ion from clay colloid and makes the
sodium mixed clay particles. This sodium is converted into sodium hydroxide by hydrolysis as per
the following reaction-

The OH– ion thus formed increases the soil pH.

(iii) Neutrality:
In those areas, where the soil contain hydrogen and hydroxyl ion almost in equal quantities,
the soils are neutral in character.
Soil pH:
pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration of soil solution and it is usually written
as –

pH scale is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a soil solution (or other solution). This scale
runs from 0 pH to 14 pH. In this scale, the 7 units level is known as neutral i.e. neither acidic nor
alkaline. Pure water has a pH-7.0. All values below pH 7.0 denotes acidity and the values above pH
7.0 represents alkalinity. The degree of acidity increases as pH decreases below pH 7.0. Soil showing
pH 5 is ten times more acidic than showing pH 6.0. Likewise, the degree of alkalinity increase as we
go higher from pH 7.0. The alkalinity at pH 9.0. unit is ten times more than that pH 8.0 units.

Factors Controlling Soil Reaction:

There are some factors that control soil reaction are as follows:
(i) Nature of Soil Colloid:
Soil colloid influences soil reaction to a very great extent. Soil colloids when dominated by adsorbed
hydrogen (H+) ion, the reaction of soil becomes acidic. On the other hand, soil colloid when
dominated by hydroxyl (OH–) ion, the reaction of soil becomes alkalinity.
(ii) Nature of Ion:
The soil that contains more hydrogen ion than hydroxyl ions becomes acidic in reaction. When the
aluminium ions are present in the soil, they react with water to liberate hydrogen ions, which
increases the soil acidity.

(iii) Percentage Base Saturation:

A low percentage base saturation of soil means soil acidity. In humid areas, the basic elements have
been leached down from the soil, the percentage base saturation decreases much below 80 and they
become acidic in reaction. If the percentage of base saturation is above 80 and at 90, then they
become neutral in reaction and alkaline reaction respectively.
(iv) Rainfall:
Rainfall plays important role in determining the soil reaction. The soils that are developed in high
rainfall areas, becomes acidic in nature due to leaching of some nutrients such as calcium (Ca ++),
magnesium (Mg++) etc. from soil solution. So leaching encourages the development of soil acidity.
On other hand, the soils that are developed in low rainfall areas, becomes alkaline in nature.
(v) Fertilizers:
The continual use of fertilizers is responsible for a marked change in soil pH. Acid forming
fertilizers such as Ammonium sulphate, Urea, Ammonium nitrate etc. when applied in the soil in
large quantities makes the soil acidic. On the other hand, basic fertilizers such Sodium nitrate, Basic
slag etc. makes the soil alkaline.

Influence of Soil Reaction on the Availability of Nutrients:

Soil reaction affects the availability of nutrients to plants. Soil reaction affects indirectly in
availability of nutrients to plants as soil organism do not function well in acid and alkali soil. Soil
organism do their function at their best within a pH range 6.0-7.5.
The influence of soil reaction on the availability of nutrients to plant is as follows:
1. Nitrogen:
Nitrogen is most important nutrient for plants. Plant absorbs nitrogen in the form of Ammonium
(NH4+) and Nitrate (NO3–). Out of these two forms, plant absorbs most of their nitrogen in the form
of nitrate (NO3–). The availability of nitrate nitrogen depends on the activity of nitrifying bacteria’s.
The microorganism responsible for nitrification are most active when the soil pH is between 6.5 and
7.5.
The activity of nitrifying bacteria is adversely affected if pH falls below 5.5 and more than 9.0. The
activity of nitrogen fixing bacteria (e.g. Azotobacter) falls down at below soil pH 6.0. In acidic
condition, the decomposition of organic matter, the main source of nitrogen, is also slow down.
2. Phosphorus:
Phosphorus is an essential constituent of every living cells and for nutrition of plant and animal. The
availability of phosphorus depends on the soil pH. In strongly acidic soil (pH 5.0 or less), iron,
aluminium, magnesium and other bases remains in soluble form and phosphorus reacts with these
bases are converted into insoluble form and become unavailable to plant.

3. Potassium:
Potassium is an essential element for the development of chlorophyll. The availability of potassium
does not influence by soil reaction to any great extent. In acid soil, potassium is lost through
leaching. Application of lime for reclamation of acid soil result in an increase in potassium fixation
of soils and the potassium remains in the soil in the form of non-availability.
4. Sulphur:
Sulphur is an important element for oil seeds, cruciferae, sugar and pulse crop. The availability of
sulphur is not affected by soil reaction. In acid soil, it is more soluble and is subjected to loss by
leaching.
5. Calcium:
Calcium as calcium pectate is an important constituent of cell wall and requires in large amounts for
cell division. Acid soils are poor in calcium. In alkali soil (pH not exceeding 8.5), the availability of
calcium remains high. The availability of calcium decreases when soil pH is above 8.5.
6. Magnesium:
Magnesium is an essential constituent of chlorophyll. Acid soils are poor in magnesium. In alkali soil
(pH not exceeding 8.5), the availability of magnesium remains high. The availability of magnesium
decreases when soil pH is above 8.5.
7. Manganese:
Manganese is an essential constituent of chlorophyll and also formation of oils and fats. Soil pH has
decided influence in the availability of manganese. At high pH values, all cations are unfavourably
affected. Over liming or a naturally high pH is associated with deficiencies of manganese and such
conditions occur in nature in many of the calcareous soils of West Bengal.
8. Iron:
Iron is necessary for the synthesis of chlorophyll. In very acid soil, there is relative abundance of
ions of iron. Iron deficiency of plant due to high pH is not uncommon. At high pH i.e. in alkali soils,
ferrous (Fe2+) ion is converted to ferric (Fe3+) and precipitated as Ferric oxide (Fe2O3). The
availability of iron increases as the pH of soil decreases.
9. Zinc:
Soil pH affects the availability of Zinc. The zinc deficiency occurs on soils that are slightly acidic to
neutral. High pH reduces the availability of zinc by precipitating zinc as zinc hydroxides.
10. Boron:
Boron occurs in most soil in extremely small quantities. The availability and utilization of boron is
determined to a considerable extent by soil pH. Boron is most soluble under acid condition. It
apparently occurs in acid soil in part as boric acid and this is readily available to plants. The high soil
pH causes boron deficiency in plants forming complex compound. A specific Ca : B is required for
every crop. When calcium level is high, boron content should be high and if no, plant will show
boron deficiency.
11. Copper:
Copper is an essential constituent of enzyme. In very acid soil, there is relative abundance of copper.
The solubility of copper decreases as pH increases particularly in sandy soils. The decrease in
solubility with increasing the soil pH may be result of precipitation of copper in the form of cupric
oxide (CuO). The oxidized state of copper i.e. hydroxides or hydrous oxides is insoluble. Copper
deficiency is induced by heavy liming and excessive application of nitrogen and phosphorus.
12. Molybdenum:
Molybdenum is a constituent part of the enzyme, nitrate reductase. Molybdenum availability is
significantly dependent on soil pH. It is quite unavailable in strongly acid soil and becomes available
by liming of acid soil. As the pH is raised to 6.0 or above, its availability increases.

Nature and Properties of Soils

The soil is a whole part of nature, embracing the topsoil and the subsoil and other inner layers
above its parent rocks. It is formed by weathering of the rocks, which is its parent material. Based
on the climate under which it weathers, on the kind of topography upon which it is present, on the
ssvegetation and other organisms with which the entire development of the soil takes place, and
on the time duration that takes the soil to develop, the soil has different nature and properties. Soil
consists of splintered rocks and humus. Some of the essential properties of soil are listed below:

Physical Properties of Soil

The physical properties of soil include texture, particle size, porosity, water holding capacity, soil
horizon, etc. These properties are visible to us.
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Soil Structure: Definition, Types and Formation

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After reading this article you will learn about Soil Structure:- 1. Definition of Soil Structure
2. Types of Soil Structure 3. Classes 4. Grades 5. Formation 6. Factors Affecting 7. Effects
8. Structural Management of Soils.
Definition of Soil Structure:
The arrangement of soil particles and their aggregate into certain defined patterns is called structure.
The primary soil particles—sand, silt and clay—usually occur grouped together in the form of
aggregates. Natural aggregates are called peds, whereas clod is an artificially formed soil mass.

Structure is studied in the field under natural conditions and it is described under three
categories:
1. Type—Shape or form and arrangement pattern of peds.

2. Class—Size of peds.

3. Grade—Degree of distinctness of peds.

Types of Soil Structure:

There are four principal forms of soil structure:
(a) Plate-like:
In this structural type of aggregates are arranged in relatively thin horizontal plates. The horizontal
dimensions are much more developed than the vertical. When the units are thick, they are called
platy, and when thin, laminar (Fig. 2.1).

Platy structure is most noticeable in the surface layers of virgin soils but may be present in the sub-
soil. Although most structural features are usually a product of soil forming forces, the platy type is
often inherited from the parent material, especially those laid down by water.

(b) Prism-like:
The vertical axis is more developed than horizontal, giving a pillar-like shape. When the top of such
a ped is rounded, the structure is termed as columnar, and when flat, prismatic. They commonly
occur in sub-soil horizons in arid and semi-arid regions.

(c) Block-like:
All these dimensions are about the same size and the peds are cube-like with flat or rounded faces.
When the faces are flat and the edges sharp angular, the structure is named as angular blocky. When
the faces and edges are mainly rounded it is called sub angular blocky. These types usually are
confined to the sub-soil and characteristics have much to do with soil drainage, aeration and root
penetration.

(d) Spheroidal (Sphere-like):

All rounded aggregates (peds) may be placed in this category, although the term more properly refers
to those not over 0.5 inch in diameter. Those rounded complexes usually lie loosely and separately
[Fig. 2.2 (a), 2.2 (b) and 2.2 (c)].
When wetted, the intervening spaces generally are not closed so readily by swelling as may be the
case with a blocky structural condition. Therefore in sphere-like structure infiltration, percolation and
aeration are not affected by wetting of soil. The aggregates of this group are usually termed as
granular which are relatively less porous; when the granules are very porous, the term used is
crumby.

Classes of Soil Structure:

Each primary structural type of soil is differentiated into 5 size-classes depending upon the size of
the individual peds.

The terms commonly used for the size classes are:

1. Very fine or very thin

2. Fine or thin

3. Medium

4. Coarse or thick

5. Very coarse or very thick.

The terms thin and thick are used for platy types, while the terms fine and coarse are used for other
structural types.
Grades of Soil Structure:
Grades indicate the degree of distinctness of the individual peds. It is determined by the stability of
the aggregates. Grade of structure is influenced by the moisture content of the soil. Grade also
depends on organic matter, texture etc.

Four terms commonly used to describe the grade of soil structure are:
1. Structure-less:
There are no noticeable peds, such as conditions exhibited by loose sand or a cement-like condition
of some clay soils.

2. Weak structure:
Indistinct formation of peds which are not durable.

3. Moderate structure:
Moderately well-developed peds which are fairly distinct.

4. Strong structure:
Very well-formed peds which are quite durable and distinct. For naming a soil structure the sequence
followed is grade, class and type; for example, strong coarse angular blocky (soil structure).

Examples of sphere-like soil structure:

Often compound structures are met within the soil under natural conditions. For example, large
prismatic types may break into medium blocky structure, constitute the compound structure.

Formation of Soil Structure:

The mechanism of structure (aggregate) formation is quite complex. In aggregate formation a
number of primary particles such as sand, silt and clay are brought together by the cementing or
binding effect of soil colloidal clay, iron and aluminium hydroxides and organic matter.

The mineral Colloids (colloidal clay) by virtue of their properties of adhesion and cohesion, stick
together to form aggregates. Sand and silt particles cannot form aggregates as they do not possess the
power of adhesion and cohesion.

The amount and nature of colloidal clay influence the formation of aggregates. The greater the
amount of clay in a soil, the greater is the tendency to form aggregates. Clay particles smaller than
0.001 mm aggregate very readily. So also clay minerals that have high base exchange capacity form
aggregate more readily than those which have a low base exchange capacity. Iron and aluminium
hydroxides act as cementing agent is binding the soil particles together. These are also responsible
for forming aggregates by cementing sand and silt particles.
Organic matter plays an important part in forming soil aggregates. During decomposition of organic
matter, humic acid and other sticky materials are produced which helps to form aggregate. Some
fungi and bacteria taking part in the decomposition have also been found to have a cementing effect.

Another view of structure formation is that clay particles adsorbed by humus forming a clay-humus
complex. It seems that humus absorbs both cations and anions. In normal soil, calcium is the
predominant cation and forms calcium humate in combination with humus.

Factors Affecting Soil Structure:

The development of structure in arable soil depends on the following factors:
1. Climate:
Climate has considerable influence on the degree of aggregation as well as 011 the type of structure.
In arid region, there is very little aggregation of primary particles. In semi- arid regions, the degree of
aggregation is greater than arid regions.

2. Organic matter:
Organic matter improves the structure of a sandy soil as well as of a clay soil. In a case of sandy soil,
the sticky and slimy material produced by the decomposing organic matter and the associated
microorganism cement the sand particles to form aggregates. In the case of clayey soil, it modifies
the properties of clay by reducing its cohesive power. This helps making clay more crumby.

3. Tillage:
Cultivation implements break down of large clods into smaller fragments and aggregates. For
obtaining good granular and crumby structure, an optimum moisture content in the soil is necessary.
If the moisture content is too high it will form large clods on drying. If it is too low, some of the
existing aggregates will be broken down.

4. Plant roots:
Large number of granules remain attached to roots and root hairs which help to develop crumb
structure. Plant root secretions may also act as cementing agents in binding the soil particles. The
plant roots, on decay, may also bring about granulation due to the production of sticky substances.

5. Soil organism:
Among the soil fauna, small animals like earthworms, moles and insects etc., that burrow in the soil
are the chief agents that take part in the aggregation of finer particles.

6. Fertilizers:
Fertilizer like Sodium nitrate destroys granulation by reducing the stability of aggregates. Few
fertilizers, for example, Calcium Ammonium nitrate, help in development of good structures.

7. Wetting and drying:

Wren a dry soil is wetted, the soil colloids swell on absorbing water. On drying, shrinkage produced
strains in the soil mass give rise to cracks which break it up into clods and granules of various sizes.
Effects of Soil Structure on Other Physical Properties of Soil:
Soil structure brings change in other physical properties of soil—like porosity, temperature, density,
consistency and colour.

1. Porosity:
Porosity of a soil is easily changed. In plate-like structure pore spaces are less whereas in crumby
structure pore spaces are more.

2. Temperature:
Crumby structure provides good aeration and percolation in the soil. Thus, these characteristics help
in keeping optimum temperature in comparison to plate-like structure.

3. Density:
Bulk density varies with the total pore space present in the soil. Structure chiefly influences pore
spaces. Platy structure with less total pore spaces has high bulk density whereas crumby structure
with more total pore spaces has low bulk density.

4. Consistence:
Consistence of soil also depends on structure. Plate-like structure exhibits strong plasticity.

5. Colour:
Bluish and greenish colours of soil are generally due to poor drainage of soil. Platy structure
normally hinders free drainage.

Structural Management of Soils:

(a) Coarse-textured Soil:
Sandy soils are commonly too loose and lack the capacity to adsorb and hold sufficient moisture and
nutrients. They lack fertility and water- holding capacity. There is only one practical method of
improving the structure of such soil- the addition of organic matter. Organic matter will not only act
as a binding agent for the particles but will also increase the water-holding capacity. Sod-crops, for
example, corn, blue grass etc., also help in improving the structural condition of sandy soils.

(b) Fine-textured Soil:

The structural management of a clay soil is difficult than sandy soil. In clay, plasticity and cohesion
are high because of the presence of large amount of colloidal clay. When such a soil is tilled when
wet, its pore space becomes much reduced, it becomes practically impervious to air and water and it
is said to be puddled. When a soil in this condition dries, it usually becomes hard and dense.

The tillage of clay soil should be done at right moisture stage. If ploughed too wet, the structural
aggregates are broken down and an un-favourable structure results. On the other hand, if ploughed
too dry, big clods are turned up which are difficult to work. The granulation of fine-textured soil
should be encouraged by the incorporation of organic matter. Growing of sod-crops also improves
granulation in the soil.,
 (c) Rice Soil:
Puddling of the soil is generally beneficial to the production of rice. In preparation for the planting of
rice, the soil is flooded with water and then puddled by intensive tillage. Puddling destroys the
structural aggregates. Rice seedling is transplanted into the freshly prepared mud.

Such soil management helps control weeds and also reduce the rate of water movement down
(percolation) through the soil. This is important to maintain standing water in the rice through out the
growing season. By reducing water percolation, puddled soil markedly decreases the amount of
water needed to produce a rice crop.

Semi-aquatic characteristics of the rice plant account for its positive response to a type of soil
management that destroy aggregate. Rice survives flooded conditions because oxygen moves
downward inside the stem of the plant to supply the roots. This characteristic permits rice to stand
well in the water-logging condition. Rice can be grown successfully on un-puddled but flooded soil.

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Others

Soil texture deals with the relative content of different sizes of soil particles. The different
proportions of the soil make up the mineral component of soil, such as sand, silt, and clay. These
soil types have the following range of particle size:
Soil Type Particle Size
Sand 0.050.05 to 2mm2mm
Silt 0.0020.002 to 0.05mm0.05mm
clay <0.002mm<0.002mm
Sand and silt are commonly composed of quartz or some other inactive minerals; due to their
large size, they do not contribute to a soil’s ability to retain soil water or nutrients.
On the other hand, clay has tiny size and sheet-like structure, clay has a large amount of surface
area per unit mass, and this surface charge helps to attract water. Because of this, clay has the
highest water holding capacity.
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Soil Porosity

Soil porosity refers to the voids or pores within the soil that facilitate air and water movement.
More porous soil is considered to be healthier. Poor quality soils have few visible pores, cracks or
voids.

Soil Colour
 Soil has distinct colours due to the minerals present and by the organic matter content. Different
areas have different colours of soil. Soil colours range mostly from black to red to white due to
organic matter and iron. Red soil indicates the presence of oxidised iron. Dark brown or black
coloured topsoil indicates that the soil has a high content of organic matter.

Properties of Red Soil

1. It is porous.
2. Red soil has a high percentage of iron oxide.
3. Its pHpH value ranges from 4.54.5 to 6.5.6.5.
4. It is not fertile.
Properties of Black Soil
1. Black soil is also known as ‘black cotton soil’ because cotton is the most important crop grown on
this soil.
2. It retains a good amount of water, thus has a clayey texture and is highly fertile.
3. It is rich in Calcium carbonate, Potash, Magnesium, etc.
4. It is deficient in Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Humus.

Soil Profile
The vertical section of the soil from the top surface to the bottom-most layer where the soil meets
the underlying rocks is defined as a soil profile. Based on the physical, chemical, and biological
properties, the soil is classified into various horizons, which are as follows:
The O-horizon – This is the topmost layer of the soil surface composed of organic materials such
as dried leaves, dead animals, etc., that are decomposed. The soil of this layer has dark brown or
black colour.
The A-horizon – This surface horizon, also known as the topsoil, consists of considerable organic
matter such as hummus. It is predominantly the fertile surface layer of many soils in agricultural
lands. This layer is rich in several microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, earthworms, etc.
The B-horizon – This layer is mainly composed of minerals (sand, silt, and clay). It contains less
humus, minerals, and organic matter. Due to the presence of clayey soil, this layer holds more
water than the topsoil.
The C-horizon – This horizon is known as parent rock and mainly consists of weathered as well
as partially decomposed rock. The R-horizon – The lowest layer consists of a mass of rock such
as granite, basalt, limestone or sandstone, quartz and is known as bedrock.

Chemical Properties of Soil

 Some chemical properties of soil include the following:

Soil pH

1. pHpH is defined as a measure of the active hydrogen ion (H+)(H+) concentration. Soil pHpH is
an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.
2. The pHpH scale ranges from 00 to 14,14, with values below 7.07.0 in the acidic medium and
values above 7.07.0 in the alkaline medium. A pHpH value of 77 is considered neutral,
where H+H+ and OH–OH– are equal.
3. Microbial and plant growth in the soil is mainly affected by the pH of the soil, as ion solubility in
soil is directly affected by pHpH. A pHpH range of 6.06.0 to 6.86.8 is ideal for most crops
because it is accompanied by optimum solubility of the essential plant nutrients.
4. In acidic soils, hydrogen and aluminium are the dominant exchangeable cations as hydrolysis
produces hydrogen ions. Whereas, calcium and magnesium are basic cations.
5. Factors that affect soil pHpH include parent material, vegetation, and climate. The addition of
certain fertilisers to soil can also produce hydrogen ions and make the soil acidic. Liming the soil
adds calcium, which replaces hydrogen ions with hydroxide ions, and raises the pHpH. In this
manner pHpH of the soil is balanced in a particular area.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Most heavy metals exist as cations in the soil environment. The most common cations found in
soils are hydrogen (H+),(H+), aluminium (Al3+),(Al3+), calcium (Ca2+),
(Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+),(Mg2+), and potassium (K+).(K+). Clay and organic matter can hold
cations from being “leached” or washed away as clay and organic matter are predominantly
negatively charged (anions). The cations that are adsorbed, are replaced by other cations in a
rapid, reversible process called “cation exchange”.
The “cation exchange capacity,” or “CEC,” of a soil is a measurement of the amount of cations
retained by the negative charge (anions) per unit weight of soil or the number of cations in an
exchangeable form that a given sample of soil has. The higher the clay and organic matter
content, the more negatively charged the CEC should be.

Cations leaving the exchange sites enter the soil solution, where plants can absorb them. Cation
exchange is an essential mechanism in soils for retaining and supplying plant nutrients and for
adsorbing contaminants. Due to this reason, it plays a vital role in wastewater treatment in soils.
PRACTICE 10TH CBSE EXAM QUESTIONS

Biological Properties of Soil

 The influence of microorganisms living in the soil regulates the biological properties of soil.
Organic matter in soil contains waste, metabolites, and residue from plants and animals that act as
a good fertiliser on decomposition. Microbes in the soil convert organic matter into usable forms
such as ammonia, sulphate, phosphate, etc. Some examples of soil microorganisms and other
living organisms are bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes, protozoa, rodents, etc. All these living
creatures help in maintaining the soil environment.

Engineering Properties of Soil

Engineering properties of soil include:
1. Cohesion – As we know, cohesion is a property of internal molecular attraction that resists the
rupture of a substance. In small soil particles, water films help in binding the soil particles into an
individual mass. Cohesion is greater in clays that are well compacted.
2. The angle of internal friction – The resistance in sliding soil particles in a mass of soil depends
upon the angle of internal friction.
3. Capillarity – Water rises through the pores of the soil due to capillary action. By this action,
water flows through all the directions in the soil irrespective of the gravitational force.
4. Permeability – Soil moves across the soil pores due to permeability or porosity.
5. Elasticity – When stress is applied to the soil, it does not get deformed permanently. Instead, it
gets back to its original form once the stress is removed.
6. Compressibility – Sand, gravels, and silt are not compressible. At the same time, clays are
compressible.
 Index Properties of Soil
The properties of soil that help identify and classify soil for general engineering purposes are
known as Index properties of soil. These properties help in determining the soil quality and the
agricultural practices that can be done in a particular soil type. Some of the index properties of
soil are as follows:
1. Particle-size distribution – It measures the size of the soil particles and the distribution of the
particles that make up a soil mass. This property stands out to be the most fundamental of all soil
properties as it decides how densely packed soil is.
2. Consistency – Soil consistency is the property by which soil resists any deformation or rupture.
The consistency of non-cohesive soil depends primarily on the factors like particle shape and size
distribution. In contrast to cohesive soils, this property depends on water content to a great extent.
3. Clay-Minerals Content – Clayey soil mainly contains minerals such as silica, alumina,
magnesia, and water. Depending on these factors, particle size and elasticity of clayey mineral
content are decided.
4. Water content – It is one of the most crucial index properties of finely grained soil as it decides
the soil’s fertility and mineral absorbing capacity.

Summary
In brief, the soil is the foundation of all life on the earth. The composition of soil varies from one
place to another. We can see many variations in the soil as we travel to different places. These
variations occur due to various properties of soil. Soil has different physical properties like
texture, colour, structure, porosity, water holding capacity, etc. Based on the texture, the soil is of
different types, such as sand, silt, and clay.
Due to mineral content, soil gains colours such as red, blue, or even whitish. Along with these
physical properties, chemical, and biological properties such as soil pHpH, presence of ions,
organic matter content, etc., also deal with soil quality in a particular area. Along with all soil
properties, soil moisture is also essential to help plant growth.
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FAQs
Q.1. What are the properties of desert soil?
Ans: Desert soil is sandy. They are very dry and soak in water quickly. In deserts, the demand for
water from the atmosphere, and plants, is much greater than precipitation. Water-soaked in the
upper layer of desert soil evaporates very fast.
Q.2. What are the physical properties of soil?
Ans: The physical properties of soil include texture, particle size, porosity, water holding
capacity, soil profile, etc. These properties are visible to us. Based on the texture, the soil is of
different types, such as sand, silt, and clay. Soil colour is another physical property of soil, such
as black soil, red soil, etc.
Q.3. What are the chemical properties of soil?
Ans: Chemical properties of soil include soil pH and cation exchange capacity (CEC). Soil with a
low pH value is considered acidic soil, while soil with a high pH value is considered basic. Soil
contains many minerals that plant uptake in the form of cations and anions. This cation-anion
exchange occurs between soil particles and plant roots.
Q.4. What are the shear strength parameters of soil?
Ans: The stability of soil particles is gained by the maximum internal resistance against shearing
force. Some of the shearing parameters include cohesion, which is a property of internal
molecular attraction that resists the rupture of a substance, and angle of internal friction that deals
with the resistance in sliding of soil particles in a mass.
Q.5. How does deforestation change the physical properties of soil?
Ans: Deforestation is the act of cutting trees and removing forests. Due to the reckless cutting of
trees, the temperature of a particular place increases, and the region’s humidity relatively
decreases. Due to these changes in the climate, a small amount of organic matter is decomposed,
resulting in a decline in soil structural properties and thus increasing bulk density. Also, soil
fertility decreases.
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