Fundamentals of Computers – Detailed Notes
1. Introduction
In today’s modern era, computers are part of almost everything. From washing machines that let
you choose a wash program, smart TVs for streaming, to smartphones that work like
mini-computers — technology has become an inseparable part of life.
1-The reason computers are used so widely is because of their speed, accuracy, and efficiency.
2-They help us complete tasks in seconds that might take humans hours or even days.
3-They also allow us to communicate instantly across the globe, making distance less important.
This chapter will help you understand the basic building blocks of computers, so you can easily
learn advanced topics later.
2. Evolution of Computers
The need for computers started because humans wanted faster and more accurate ways to
calculate.
Early Stage – Manual Calculations
Before computers, humans used manual methods, which were slow and prone to errors.
The Abacus was the first known device to help with simple arithmetic calculations.
Modern Computers
The word “computer” comes from “compute”, meaning “to calculate.”
Modern computers are not limited to just calculations — they store data, play games, control
machines, and even think to some extent with artificial intelligence (AI).
How Computers Work
1. Input – Taking instructions or data from the user.
2. Processing – Working on the data using pre-written instructions.
3. Output – Showing the processed result to the user.
Binary Language
Computers understand only two signals:
1 (On)
0 (Off)
This is called Binary Language or Machine Language.
> Example: A simple command like “print a photo” is translated into 0s and 1s for the computer
to understand.
To make computers easier to use, high-level programming languages like C, C++, Java, Python,
and JavaScript were developed. These resemble human language and are translated into
binary by a translator program like a compiler or interpreter.
3. Hardware and Software
For a computer to function, hardware and software work together.
Term Meaning Examples
Hardware The physical parts you can touch. Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, CPU
Software A set of instructions or programs that tell the hardware what to do.Windows OS,
MS Word, Online Calculator
4. Characteristics of Computers
Computers are used everywhere because of their unique abilities:
Feature Explanation Example
1-Speed- It Can perform millions of instructions in one second.eg-Calculating marks of an
entire school in seconds.
Versatility- It Can perform many tasks, one after another.eg- Typing a letter, then calculating
salaries, then playing a game.
Accuracy - It Results are almost always correct, but wrong input leads to wrong output (GIGO –
Garbage In, Garbage Out).eg- Entering the wrong formula in Excel gives wrong results.
Diligence- It Can work continuously without getting tired or bored.eg- Printing thousands of
pages overnight.
Memory Can store and retrieve data easily, though primary memory is temporary.eg-
Files remain saved on your computer even after a restart if stored in secondary memory.
Storage- It Can store huge data safely for years. Eg-Photos, videos, documents.
Intelligence With AI, computers now make smart decisions.Self-driving cars or AI chess games.
5. Components of a Computer
Every task a computer performs goes through the IPO Cycle:
Input → Processing → Output
a) Input
Instructions or data are entered through input devices like keyboards, mice, scanners, or
microphones.
A set of instructions for performing a task is called a program.
b) Storage
There are three levels of storage:
Primary Memory
1-Directly accessible by the CPU.
2-Includes RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory).
RAM (Volatile Memory)
1-Data is lost when power is turned off.
Types:
1-DRAM: Slower but cheaper, uses less power.
2-SRAM: Faster, more expensive, used in cache memory.
ROM (Non-Volatile Memory)
Permanent storage that helps during computer startup.
Types include PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
Secondary Storage
External storage not directly connected to the CPU.
Examples: Hard disks, pen drives, CDs, DVDs.
Used for storing data permanently.
Cache Memory
1-Extremely fast memory located between the CPU and RAM.
2-Helps the CPU access frequently used data faster.
3-Reduces delays during processing.
c) Processing
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) acts as the brain of the computer.
Parts of CPU:
1-Control Unit (CU): Directs the flow of data and coordinates input, output, and storage.
2-Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical calculations and logical operations.
d) Output
Displays results through devices like monitors, printers, speakers, or projectors.
6. Operating System (OS)
1-An Operating System (OS) is like a manager that controls the computer.
2-It acts as a bridge between the user and the hardware.
Examples: Windows, Linux, MacOS, UNIX.
> Fun fact: Gary Arlen Kildall is known as the father of the operating system.
Functions of an OS
Function What It Does
Communication Manager- Manages communication between the system and devices like
printers or networks.
Resource Management- Distributes CPU time, memory, and devices among programs.
Process Management- It Schedules which task the CPU handles and for how long.
Memory Management- It Allocates and frees memory dynamically.
File Management- It Helps create, edit, save, and manage files or folders.
Types of Operating Systems
Single-tasking – Only one task runs at a time.
Multi-tasking – Multiple programs run simultaneously.
Single-user – One person can use the system.
Multi-user – Many users can access the system at the same time.
Real-time OS – Responds instantly for critical tasks like missile control.
Batch Processing – Groups similar tasks and executes them together.
7. Troubleshooting and Utilities
Even well-maintained computers sometimes face issues. Troubleshooting means finding and
fixing problems.
General Troubleshooting Steps
1-Check cables and power connections.
2-Restart the system.
3-Note down error messages.
4-Use built-in Help (press F1).
5-Keep backups of important data.
Common Problems & Fixes
DeviceProblem Solution
Monitor- If Screen blank Check cables, wake from sleep mode, charge laptop.
Keyboard- If Not responding Check connection, clean dust, change batteries (if wireless).
Mouse - If not working Check USB port, clean sensor, replace if faulty.
Printer- If Not printing Check power, paper, ink cartridge, drivers, or IP settings.
Software Issues
Slow Programs: Update software or restart the application.
Frozen Programs: Force close using Ctrl + Alt + Delete.
System Freeze: Restart computer or perform a hard reboot if necessary.
Utility Software
These programs help maintain performance:
Antivirus – Removes harmful files.
Disk Cleanup – Deletes temporary files.
Disk Defragmentation – Organizes scattered data for faster access.
Uninstall Unused Programs – Saves space and improves speed.
Networking Troubleshooting
1-Check Wi-Fi or LAN connection.
2-Verify IP address using ipconfig command.
3-Check cables (fly lead) and network card lights.
4-Seek help from a technician if needed.
