Chapter 9: Virtual Memory
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition, Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Chapter 9: Virtual Memory
Background
Demand Paging
Copy-on-Write
Page Replacement
Allocation of Frames
Thrashing
Memory-Mapped Files
Allocating Kernel Memory
Other Considerations
Operating-System Examples
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Objectives
To describe the benefits of a virtual memory system
To explain the concepts of demand paging, page-replacement
algorithms, and allocation of page frames
To discuss the principle of the working-set model
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Background
Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from
physical memory.
Only part of the program needs to be in memory for
execution
Logical address space can therefore be much larger than
physical address space
Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes
Allows for more efficient process creation
Virtual memory can be implemented via:
Demand paging
Demand segmentation
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical Memory
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual-address Space
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Shared Library Using Virtual Memory
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging
Bring a page into memory only when it is needed
Less I/O needed
Less memory needed
Faster response
More users
Page is needed reference to it
invalid reference abort
not-in-memory bring to memory
Lazy swapper – never swaps a page into memory unless page
will be needed
Swapper that deals with pages is a pager
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Transfer of a Paged Memory to Contiguous Disk Space
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Valid-Invalid Bit
With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v in-memory, i not-in-memory)
Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
Example of a page table snapshot:
Frame # valid-invalid bit
v
v
v
v
i
….
i
i
page table
During address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table
entry
is I page fault
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main Memory
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Fault
If there is a reference to a page, first reference to
that page will trap to operating system:
page fault
1. Operating system looks at another table to decide:
Invalid reference abort
Just not in memory
2. Get empty frame
3. Swap page into frame
4. Reset tables
5. Set validation bit = v
6. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Fault (Cont.)
Restart instruction
block move
auto increment/decrement location
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Steps in Handling a Page Fault
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Performance of Demand Paging
Page Fault Rate 0 p 1.0
if p = 0 no page faults
if p = 1, every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ swap page out
+ swap page in
+ restart overhead
)
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging Example
Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
Average page-fault service time = 8 milliseconds
EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8 milliseconds)
= (1 – p x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800
If one access out of 1,000 causes a page fault, then
EAT = 8.2 microseconds.
This is a slowdown by a factor of 40!!
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Copy-on-Write
Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child processes
to initially share the same pages in memory
If either process modifies a shared page, only then is the
page copied
COW allows more efficient process creation as only modified
pages are copied
Free pages are allocated from a pool of zeroed-out pages
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Before Process 1 Modifies Page C
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
After Process 1 Modifies Page C
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What happens if there is no free frame?
Page replacement – find some page in memory,
but not really in use, swap it out
algorithm
performance – want an algorithm which will
result in minimum number of page faults
Same page may be brought into memory several
times
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement
Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying page-fault
service routine to include page replacement
Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers –
only modified pages are written to disk
Page replacement completes separation between logical
memory and physical memory – large virtual memory can be
provided on a smaller physical memory
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Need For Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk
2. Find a free frame:
- If there is a free frame, use it
- If there is no free frame, use a page
replacement algorithm to select a victim
frame
3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free
frame; update the page and frame tables
4. Restart the process
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement Algorithms
Want lowest page-fault rate
Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular
string of memory references (reference string)
and computing the number of page faults on
that string
In all our examples, the reference string is
1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Graph of Page Faults Versus The Number of Frames
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per
process)
1 1 4 5
2 2 1 3 9 page faults
3 3 2 4
4 frames
1 1 5 4
2 2 1 5 10 page faults
3 3 2
4 4 3
Belady’s Anomaly: more frames more page faults
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
FIFO Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anomaly
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Optimal Algorithm
Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
4 frames example
1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1 4
6 page
2
faults
3
4 5
How do you know this?
Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Optimal Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm
Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1 1 1 1 5
2 2 2 2 2
3 5 5 4 4
4 4 3 3 3
Counter implementation
Every page entry has a counter; every time page is
referenced through this entry, copy the clock into
the counter
When a page needs to be changed, look at the
counters to determine which are to change
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
Stack implementation – keep a stack of page numbers in a
double link form:
Page referenced:
move it to the top
requires 6 pointers to be changed
No search for replacement
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Use Of A Stack to Record The Most Recent Page References
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Approximation Algorithms
Reference bit
With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
When page is referenced bit set to 1
Replace the one which is 0 (if one exists)
We do not know the order, however
Second chance
Need reference bit
Clock replacement
If page to be replaced (in clock order) has reference bit =
1 then:
set reference bit 0
leave page in memory
replace next page (in clock order), subject to same
rules
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Counting Algorithms
Keep a counter of the number of references that
have been made to each page
LFU Algorithm: replaces page with smallest
count
MFU Algorithm: based on the argument that the
page with the smallest count was probably just
brought in and has yet to be used
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Allocation of Frames
Each process needs minimum number of pages
Example: IBM 370 – 6 pages to handle SS MOVE
instruction:
instruction is 6 bytes, might span 2 pages
2 pages to handle from
2 pages to handle to
Two major allocation schemes
fixed allocation
priority allocation
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Fixed Allocation
Equal allocation – For example, if there are 100 frames
and 5 processes, give each process 20 frames.
Proportional allocation – Allocate according to the size
of sprocess
i size of process pi
S si
m total number of frames
s
ai allocation for pi i m
S
m 64
si 10
s2 127
10
a1 64 5
137
127
a2 64 59
137
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Priority Allocation
Use a proportional allocation scheme using priorities
rather than size
If process Pi generates a page fault,
select for replacement one of its frames
select for replacement a frame from a process
with lower priority number
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Global vs. Local Allocation
Global replacement – process selects a
replacement frame from the set of all frames;
one process can take a frame from another
Local replacement – each process selects from
only its own set of allocated frames
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Thrashing
If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-
fault rate is very high. This leads to:
low CPU utilization
operating system thinks that it needs to increase
the degree of multiprogramming
another process added to the system
Thrashing a process is busy swapping pages in and
out
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Thrashing (Cont.)
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging and Thrashing
Why does demand paging work?
Locality model
Process migrates from one locality to another
Localities may overlap
Why does thrashing occur?
size of locality > total memory size
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Locality In A Memory-Reference Pattern
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Working-Set Model
working-set window a fixed number of page
references
Example: 10,000 instruction
WSSi (working set of Process Pi) =
total number of pages referenced in the most recent
(varies in time)
if too small will not encompass entire locality
if too large will encompass several localities
if = will encompass entire program
D = WSSi total demand frames
if D > m Thrashing
Policy if D > m, then suspend one of the processes
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Working-set model
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Keeping Track of the Working Set
Approximate with interval timer + a reference bit
Example: = 10,000
Timer interrupts after every 5000 time units
Keep in memory 2 bits for each page
Whenever a timer interrupts copy and sets the values of
all reference bits to 0
If one of the bits in memory = 1 page in working set
Why is this not completely accurate?
Improvement = 10 bits and interrupt every 1000 time units
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page-Fault Frequency Scheme
Establish “acceptable” page-fault rate
If actual rate too low, process loses frame
If actual rate too high, process gains frame
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Working Sets and Page Fault Rates
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Memory-Mapped Files
Memory-mapped file I/O allows file I/O to be treated as
routine memory access by mapping a disk block to a page in
memory
A file is initially read using demand paging. A page-sized
portion of the file is read from the file system into a physical
page. Subsequent reads/writes to/from the file are treated as
ordinary memory accesses.
Simplifies file access by treating file I/O through memory
rather than read() write() system calls
Also allows several processes to map the same file allowing
the pages in memory to be shared
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Memory Mapped Files
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Memory-Mapped Shared Memory in Windows
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Allocating Kernel Memory
Treated differently from user memory
Often allocated from a free-memory pool
Kernel requests memory for structures of varying sizes
Some kernel memory needs to be contiguous
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Buddy System
Allocates memory from fixed-size segment consisting of
physically-contiguous pages
Memory allocated using power-of-2 allocator
Satisfies requests in units sized as power of 2
Request rounded up to next highest power of 2
When smaller allocation needed than is available, current
chunk split into two buddies of next-lower power of 2
Continue until appropriate sized chunk available
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Buddy System Allocator
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Slab Allocator
Alternate strategy
Slab is one or more physically contiguous pages
Cache consists of one or more slabs
Single cache for each unique kernel data structure
Each cache filled with objects – instantiations of the data
structure
When cache created, filled with objects marked as free
When structures stored, objects marked as used
If slab is full of used objects, next object allocated from
empty slab
If no empty slabs, new slab allocated
Benefits include no fragmentation, fast memory request
satisfaction
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Slab Allocation
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Other Issues -- Prepaging
Prepaging
To reduce the large number of page faults that
occurs at process startup
Prepage all or some of the pages a process will
need, before they are referenced
But if prepaged pages are unused, I/O and memory
was wasted
Assume s pages are prepaged and α of the pages is
used
Is cost of s * α save pages faults > or < than the
cost of prepaging
s * (1- α) unnecessary pages?
α near zero prepaging loses
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Other Issues – Page Size
Page size selection must take into consideration:
fragmentation
table size
I/O overhead
locality
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Other Issues – TLB Reach
TLB Reach - The amount of memory accessible
from the TLB
TLB Reach = (TLB Size) X (Page Size)
Ideally, the working set of each process is stored
in the TLB
Otherwise there is a high degree of page
faults
Increase the Page Size
This may lead to an increase in fragmentation
as not all applications require a large page
size
Provide Multiple Page Sizes
This allows applications that require larger
page sizes the opportunity to use them
without an increase in fragmentation
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Other Issues – Program Structure
Program structure
Int[128,128] data;
Each row is stored in one page
Program 1
for (j = 0; j <128; j++)
for (i = 0; i < 128; i++)
data[i,j] = 0;
128 x 128 = 16,384 page faults
Program 2
for (i = 0; i < 128; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 128; j++)
data[i,j] = 0;
128 page faults
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Other Issues – I/O interlock
I/O Interlock – Pages must sometimes be
locked into memory
Consider I/O - Pages that are used for copying
a file from a device must be locked from
being selected for eviction by a page
replacement algorithm
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.66 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Reason Why Frames Used For I/O Must Be In Memory
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.67 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Operating System Examples
Windows XP
Solaris
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.68 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Windows XP
Uses demand paging with clustering. Clustering brings in
pages surrounding the faulting page
Processes are assigned working set minimum and working
set maximum
Working set minimum is the minimum number of pages the
process is guaranteed to have in memory
A process may be assigned as many pages up to its working
set maximum
When the amount of free memory in the system falls below a
threshold, automatic working set trimming is performed to
restore the amount of free memory
Working set trimming removes pages from processes that
have pages in excess of their working set minimum
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.69 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Solaris
Maintains a list of free pages to assign faulting processes
Lotsfree – threshold parameter (amount of free memory) to
begin paging
Desfree – threshold parameter to increasing paging
Minfree – threshold parameter to being swapping
Paging is performed by pageout process
Pageout scans pages using modified clock algorithm
Scanrate is the rate at which pages are scanned. This ranges
from slowscan to fastscan
Pageout is called more frequently depending upon the
amount of free memory available
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.70 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Solaris 2 Page Scanner
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 9.71 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
End of Chapter 9
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition, Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
