Common Computer Architectures
Understanding the Structure of a Computer System
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Introduction to Computer Architectures
▪ Despite the rapid advancement of computing,
the fundamentals of computer architecture
remain the same.
▪ There are four main types of computer
architecture:
Von Neumann architecture,
Harvard architecture,
Modified Harvard Architecture, and
RISC & CISC Architectures.
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Von Neumann Architecture
• The Von Neumann architecture, proposed by John von Neumann in 1945, forms the
basis of most modern computers.
• Von Neumann Architecture refers to a design model for computers where
the processing unit, memory, and input-output devices are interconnected
through a single, central system bus.
• Before the invention of Von Neumann Architecture, computers followed
other designs, such as the Harvard Architecture, where memory and
processing units were separated.
• The development of Von Neumann Architecture enabled a more efficient
way to store and execute instructions, which significantly improved the
overall performance of computers..
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Von Neumann Architecture
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Harvard Architecture
▪ Unlike the von Neumann architecture where instructions
and data share the same memory and data paths,
▪ Harvard architecture is a type of computer architecture that
has separate storage units and dedicated pathways for
instructions and data.
▪ This allows for simultaneous access to instructions and
data, potentially improving performance.
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Harvad Architecture
▪ By having separate pathways, the CPU can fetch instructions and
access data at the same time, without waiting for each other, leading
to faster program execution, especially for tasks that involve a lot of
data movement.
▪ Separate memory units can be optimized for their specific purposes.
For example, instruction memory might be read-only, while data
memory might be optimized for fast read/write operations.
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Harvard Architecture
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Modified Harvad Architecture
▪ A Modified Harvard Architecture is a hybrid type of computer
architecture that combines features of both the classic Harvard
architecture and the more widely used von Neumann architecture.
▪ Like a true Harvard architecture, a modified Harvard architecture
utilizes separate caches for instructions and data. These caches
are much faster than main memory, so frequently accessed
instructions and data can be retrieved quickly.
▪ However, unlike the pure Harvard architecture where instructions
and data have completely separate physical memory units, a
modified Harvard architecture keeps instructions and data in the
same main memory.
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Modified Harvard Architecture
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Modified Harvard Architecture
▪ This combination allows for simultaneous access to
instructions and data, boosting performance over a
standard von Neumann architecture with a single cache.
Compared to a true Harvard architecture with separate
memory units, the unified memory simplifies the design and
reduces costs.
▪ Many processors you'll find in computers today use a
modified Harvard architecture with separate instruction and
data caches
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RISC & CISC Architectures
▪ RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) and CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computing) are two different architectures for computer
processors that determine how they handle instructions.
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RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing)
Architectures
▪ RISC, or Reduced Instruction Set Computer, is a type of microprocessor
architecture that utilizes a small, highly-optimized set of instructions.
▪ RISC processors are designed with a set of basic, well-defined
instructions that are typically fixed-length and easy for the processor to
decode and execute quickly. The emphasis in RISC is on designing the
hardware to execute simple instructions efficiently, leading to faster clock
speeds and potentially lower power consumption.
▪ Examples of RISC processors include ARM processors commonly found
in smartphones and tablets, and MIPS processors used in some embedded
systems.
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RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing)
Architectures
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CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing)
Architectures
▪ A Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) is a computer
architecture where single instructions can execute several low-
level operations or perform multi-step operations within a single
instruction.
▪ CISC processors, however, have a wider range of instructions,
including some very complex ones that can perform multiple
operations in a single instruction. This can be more concise for
programmers but can take the processor more time to decode
and execute.
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CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing)
Architectures
▪ The goal of CISC is to provide a comprehensive set of
instructions to handle a wide range of tasks, potentially
reducing the number of instructions a programmer needs to
write.
▪ Examples of CISC processors include Intel’s x86 processors,
which are used in most personal computers, and Motorola
68000 family of processors which are used in older Apple
computers.
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Evolution of Computer Architectures
Early Stages
The evolution of computer
1. Electromechanical Relays: The earliest
architectures has been a
computers, like the Zuse Z3, used
fascinating journey, marked by
electromechanical relays. These were slow
significant technological
and prone to mechanical failure.
advancements and shifts in
design paradigms 2. Vacuum Tubes: The next major step was
the use of vacuum tubes, as seen in the
ENIAC. These allowed for faster computation
but were large and generated a lot of heat.
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Evolution of Computer Architectures
Integrated Circuits
Transistor Era 4. Integrated Circuits (ICs): The 1960s saw
3. Transistors: The invention of the the introduction of ICs, which integrated
transistor in the late 1940s multiple transistors on a single chip. This
revolutionized computer design. greatly increased the complexity and capability
Transistors were smaller, more of computers while reducing their size and
reliable, and consumed less power cost.
than vacuum tubes. This led to the
development of the first generation of
transistor-based computers in the
1950s.
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Evolution of Computer Architectures
Modern Architectures
Microprocessors 6. Parallel Processing: To overcome the
5. Microprocessors: In the 1970s, limitations of increasing clock speeds, modern
the development of microprocessors, architectures have focused on parallel
which integrated the CPU onto a processing, using multiple cores and threads to
single chip, marked another perform simultaneous computations.
significant leap. This era saw the rise 7. Specialized Processors: The rise of GPUs
of personal computers. (Graphics Processing Units) and TPUs (Tensor
Processing Units) has enabled specialized
processing for tasks like graphics rendering
and machine learning.
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Evolution of Computer Architectures
Future Trends
8. Quantum Computing: Looking ahead, quantum
computing holds the promise of solving certain types
of problems much faster than classical computers by
leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics.
9. Neuromorphic Computing: Inspired by the human
brain, neuromorphic computing aims to create systems
that can process information in a more efficient and
brain-like manner.
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