1
Prolog
(Programming In Logic)
2
Artificial Intelligence
Introduction to Prolog
Exercises Teaching Material
Learn Prolog Now!
https://sites.google.com/site/prologsite/home
SWI Prolog interpreter http://www.swi-prolog.org/
Book: Learn Prolog Now! by Patrick Blackburn, Johan
Bos and Kristina Striegnitz
Code Editors: Github Atom with language-prolog
plugin / Notepad++ with Prolog (SWI) plugin. Or you
can simply use notepad/gedit to edit your code.
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SWI Prolog
Sociaal-Wetenschappelijke Informatica ("Social Science
Informatics")
SWI-Prolog is a free interpreter of the programming language
Prolog
Works with
Linux[Ubuntu, Debian, Fedora, openSUSE etc]
Windows, or
Mac OS
There are many more Prolog interpreters
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Lecture 1
Theory
Introduction to Prolog
Facts, Rules and Queries
Prolog Syntax
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Aim of this lecture
Give some simple examples of Prolog programs
Discuss the three basic constructs in Prolog:
Facts
Rules
Queries
Introduce other concepts, such as
the role of logic
unification with the help of variables
Begin the systematic study of Prolog by defining
terms, atoms, and variables
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Prolog
"Programming with Logic"
Declarative
Very different from other (procedural) programming
languages
Good for knowledge-rich tasks
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History of Prolog
first Prolog interpreter by
Colmerauer and Roussel
1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005
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History of Prolog
implementation of DEC10
compiler by Warren
1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005
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History of Prolog
Definite Clause Grammars
implementation by Pereira and
Warren
1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005
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History of Prolog
Prolog grows in popularity especially in
Europe and Japan
1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005
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History of Prolog
Prolog used to program natural
language interface in
International Space Station by
NASA
1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005
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Basic idea of Prolog
Describe the situation of interest
Ask a question
Prolog logically deduces new facts about the
situation we described
Prolog gives us its deductions back as answers
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Consequences
Think declaratively, not procedurally
Challenging
Requires a different mindset
High-level language
Not as efficient as, say, C
Good for rapid prototyping
Useful in many AI applications
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Difference between a 14
procedural language and
prolog
Let’s assume that we know these rules-
1. If event A happens, then event B happens as well. Hence, happens(A) → happens(B)
2. If event B happens, then event C happens as well. Hence, happens(B) → happens(C)
Also assume that we know for a fact, that-
1. Event A happens. Hence, happens(A) = TRUE.
Can we deduce from these rules and the fact if event C happens?
1. happens(A) → happens(B),and happens(A) = TRUE. So, happens(B) = TRUE.
2. happens(B) → happens(C),and happens(B) = TRUE. So, happens(C) = TRUE.
Thus, we deduce that event C happens!
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Example of a logical deduction in 15
a procedural programming
language(such as C)
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int A_happens, B_happens, C_happens;
int A_happens = 1;
if (A_happens == 1)
B_happens = 1;
else
B_happens = 0;
if (B_happens == 0)
C_happens = 1;
else
C_happens = 0;
printf("%d", C_happens);
return 0;
}
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Example of a logical
deduction in a Prolog
% We DECLARE the rules
happens(b) :- happens(a).
happens(c) :- happens(b).
% And we DECLARE the fact(s)
happens(a).
That’s all we need to do! If we query the Prolog ‘Knowledge base’
regarding happens(c), it will state that happens(c) = TRUE
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Chapter 1: Logic Programs
A logic program is a set of axioms, or rules, defining
relations between objects.
There are 3 basic constructs which define logic
programming.
Get well familiar with this terminologies
1. Facts
2. Queries
3. Rules
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Facts
The simplest kind of statement is called a fact.
Relation holds between objects Facts
Example: father(abraham, isaac).
This fact says that Abraham is the father of Isaac, or
that the relation father holds between the individuals
named abraham and isaac.
Predicate: Another name for a relation is a predicate.
Atoms: Names of individuals are known as atoms.
Example: abraham and isaac.
Program: A finite set of facts and rules constitute a
program.
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Queries
Queries are a means of retrieving information from a
logic program.
Example: father(abraham, isaac)?
Given the facts of previous slide, the answer to this
query is true/yes.
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Fact vs. Queries
.
Fact terminates with a period ( ).
Queries terminates with a question mark ( ?).
We call the entity without the period or question
mark a goal. A fact P. states that the goal P is true. A
query P? asks whether the goal P is true.
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Atoms
A sequence of characters of upper-case letters, lower-case
letters, digits, or underscore, starting with a lowercase letter.
• Examples: abraham, big_kahuna_burger, hamSandwich etc.
An arbitrary sequence of characters enclosed in single quotes
• Examples: 'Vincent', 'Suarez’s bite', '@$%'
• Note: abraham and ‘abraham’ are the same thing in Prolog
A sequence of special characters
• Examples: : , ; . :-
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Numbers
0-9
Integers: 12, -34, 22342
Floats: 34573.3234
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Variables
A sequence of characters of upper-case letters,
lower-case letters, digits, or underscore, starting with
either an uppercase letter or an underscore.
Examples:
X, Y, Variable, Vincent, _tag etc.
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The Logical Variable,
Substitutions, and Instances
Suppose we want to know of whom abraham is the
father.
father(abraham, lot)?
father(abraham, milcah)?
,...,
father (abraham, isaac)? until an answer yes is
given.
Better way to use variable logically
father (abraham, X)?
X={Isaac}.
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Terms
Variables. Example: X, Y, etc.
Constants Example: abraham, isaac, etc.
Compound Terms: (functor)
o A functor is characterized by its name, which is an
atom, and its arity, or number of arguments.
o Example: f(t1, t2, ..., tn)
o Atom f
o Arity n
o ti are arguments.
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Ground Vs. Nonground
queries, goals or terms without variable is ground.
Example: foo(a, b) is ground.
queries, goals or terms with variable is a non-ground.
Example: bar(X) is non-ground.
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Substitution Vs. Instance
father(abraham, isaac).
father(abraham, X). Here substitution is {X=isaac}.
father(abraham, isaac) is an instance of father(abraham,
X).
Similarly, mother(sarah,isaac) is instance of mother(X,Y)
under the substitution {X=sarah, Y=isaac}.
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Prolog and Logic
Clearly Prolog has something to do with logic
Operators
Implication :-
Conjunction ,
Disjunction ;
Use of modus ponens
Negation
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Rules
Rules are statements of the form:
A :- B1,B2,...,Bn. where n >= 0.
Note that a fact is just a special case of a rule when
n = 0. Facts are also called unit clauses.
Example: A rule expressing the son relationship is
son(X,Y) :- father(Y,X), male(X).
Similarly one can define a rule for the daughter
relationship:
daughter(X,Y) :- father(Y,X), female(X).
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Modus Ponens
To incorporate rules into our framework of logical
deduction, we need the law of modus ponens.
Modus ponens states that from P, and Q :- P, we
can deduce Q.
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Knowledge Base
A collection of facts and rules is called a knowledge
base (KB) (or a database) and Prolog programming
is all about writing knowledge bases.
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- woman(mia).
true
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- woman(mia).
true
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
true
?-
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- woman(mia).
true
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
true
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
false
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- tattoed(jody).
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- tattoed(jody).
ERROR: predicate tattoed/1 not defined.
?-
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- party.
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- party.
yes
?-
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- rockConcert.
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
?- rockConcert.
no
?-
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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):-
listens2music(yolanda).
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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
fact
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):-
listens2music(yolanda).
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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
fact
listens2music(mia). rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
fact
listens2music(mia). rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
fact
listens2music(mia). rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia). rule
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
head body
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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
?-
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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
true
?-
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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
true.
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
true.
?-
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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
true.
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
true.
?- playsAirGuitar(amanda).
false.
?-
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Clauses
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
There are five clauses in this knowledge base:
two facts, and three rules.
The end of a clause is marked with a full stop.
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Predicates
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
There are three predicates
in this knowledge base:
happy, listens2music, and playsAirGuitar
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Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent),
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
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Expressing Conjunction
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent),
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
The comma “," expresses conjunction in Prolog
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Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
?- playsAirGuitar(vincent).
false
?-
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Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent),
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
?- playsAirGuitar(butch).
true
?-
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Expressing Disjunction
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch); listens2music(butch).
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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
% Careful, this doesn’t necessarily mean that loves(mia, vincent) is a fact
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
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Prolog Variables
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- woman(X).
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Variable Instantiation
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- woman(X).
X=mia
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Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- woman(X).
X=mia;
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Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody
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Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda
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Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda;
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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
X=mia
yes
?-
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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
false
?-
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Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).
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Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).
?- jealous(marsellus,W).
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Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).
?- jealous(marsellus,W).
W=vincent
?-
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What will be the output of the query
?- jealous(vincent, vincent).
What will be the output of the query
?- jealous(vincent, vincent).
true.
?
But, in real life, does this really make sense? We should have written the rule
in a way, so that the result of these types of queries(where we query the
‘jealous’ relation with the same names) would return false. We should add
another term to the rule using conjunction, which checks that the first and
second arguments are not equal.
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Corrected Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(jack, mia).
loves(jack, kate).
jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z), \+(X == Y).
% Alternatively,
% jealous(X, Y) :- loves(X, Z), loves(Y, Z), X \== Y.
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Prolog Syntax
Terms
Simple Terms
Complex Terms
Constants Variables
Atoms Numbers
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Arity
The number of arguments a complex term has is
called its arity
Examples:
woman(mia) is a term with arity 1
loves(vincent,mia) has arity 2
father(father(butch)) arity 1
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Arity is important
In Prolog you can define two predicates with the
same functor but with different arity
Prolog would treat this as two different predicates
In Prolog documentation arity of a predicate is
usually indicated with the suffix "/" followed by a
number to indicate the arity
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Example of Arity
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
This knowledge base defines
happy/1
listens2music/1
playsAirGuitar/1
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Operators and Functions
Normal Prolog operators are prefix:
@>(Item1, Item2).
@=<(Item1, Item2).
==(Item1, Item2).
\==(Item1, Item2).
Some symbols can be used infix: arithmetic and
comparison
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Comparison Operators
Operator Meaning
\+ Not (negation by failure)
=, \=, =.. Unification, not unifiable, list unification
==, \== Term identical, term not identical
@<, @=<, @>, @>= Term less than, term less than or equal to, etc.
is Unify left-hand side with result of evaluating right
hand side.
=:=, =\= Arithmetic equal, arithmetic not equal
<, =<, >, >= Arithmetic less than, etc.
:
+, -, /\, \/ Add, subtract, bitwise AND, bitwise OR
*, /, //, Mult, div, integer division
rem, mod Different versions of mod (see manual)
>>, << Shift right, shift left
**, ^. \ Exponentiation, bitwise XOR, bitwise NOT
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Comparison functions
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Arithmetic
Example.
bonus(Number) :- Number is 2 + 3.
?- bonus(3).
No
?- bonus(5).
Yes
?- bonus(X).
X = 5
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Arithmetic
Example.
= and is have
| ?- X is 5 + 2. different meanings
X = 7
yes
= means term assignment
| ?- X = 5 + 2.
is means arithmetic assignment
X = 5+2
yes
| ?- X is 5.3 + 7.
X = 12.300000000000001
yes
Integers are coerced
| ?-
to float
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Arithmetic
Example: geography.pl
/*
north latitudes and west longitudes are positive.
sound latitudes and east longitudes are negative. Try:
*/
north_of(madrid, tokyo).
location(tokyo, 35, -139).
location(rome, 41, -12).
location(london, 51, 0).
west_of(X, tokyo).
location(canberra, -31, -149). west_of(london, X).
location(madrid, 48, 3).
north_of(X, Y) :-
location(X, Lat1, _),
location(Y, Lat2, _),
Lat1 > Lat2.
west_of(X, Y) :-
location(X, _, Long1),
location(Y, _, Long2),
Long1 > Long2.
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Tracing
Must have a period!
The prolog command is trace
|?-trace.
yes
{trace}
|?-north_of(madrid, tokyo).
1 1 Call: north_of(madrid,tokyo) ?
1 1 means top level call
2 2 Call: location(madrid,_81,_41) ?
2 2 Exit: location(madrid,48,3) ?
3 3 Call: location(tokyo,_108,_68) ? 3 2 means 3rd level call in
3 2 Exit: location(tokyo,35,-139) ? response to the current 2nd
4 2 Call: 48>35 ?
level call.
4 2 Exit: 48>35 ?
1 1 Exit: north_of(madrid,tokyo) ?
Yes
{trace}
| ?-
For more: visit: http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~billw/dictionaries/prolog/tracing.html
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88
Tracing
The command to turn off is notrace
|?-notrace.
The debugger is switched off
Yes
|?-
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89
Making Decisions
There are no if or case statements in prolog.
How do we make decisions?
Example: determine how hot it is:
// determine how hot it is
void howHot(string &HowHot, int Temp){
if (Temp >= 100)
HowHot = “very”;
else if (Temp >= 90)
HowHot = “pretty”;
else if (Temp >= 70)
HowHot = “perfect”;
else if (Temp < 70)
HowHot = “cold”;
}
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90
Making Decisions
Making decisions (howHot.pl)
Can ask
% determine how hot it is
howHot(X, 80).
Hot(HowHot, Temp) :-
Temp >= 100,
But not
HowHot = ‘very’;
howHot(very, X).
Temp < 100,
Temp >= 90,
HowHot = ‘pretty’; Cannot use is must use =
Temp < 90, is only works on arithmetic
Temp >= 70, expressions
HowHot = ‘perfect’;
Temp < 70,
Must have this test because prolog
HowHot = ‘cold’.
will view each or clause
independently. If we left out Temp
Jisan Mahmud < 100 then a temp of 110 would 4/29/2016
return both “very” and “pretty”
91
Thanks
?
Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016
