I.
Definition and Block Diagram of
Computer
A. Definition of a Computer
A computer is an electronic data processing machine that
can store, retrieve, and process data into useful information
using a set of instructions known as a program.
B. Basic Functional Units of a Computer
1. Input Unit
Converts input data to binary signals understandable by the
computer.
2. Storage Unit (Memory)
Temporarily or permanently stores data, instructions, and
results.
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Control Unit (CU): Directs operations inside the processor.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes arithmetic and logic
instructions
4. Output Unit
Converts binary data back into human-readable form.
C. Block Diagram
II. Generations of Computer
A. First Generation (1942–1955)
Technology: Vacuum tubes
Language: Machine language
Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC
Limitations: Large size, high heat, low reliability
B. Second Generation (1955–1964)
Technology: Transistors
New Features: Magnetic core memory, early OS
Languages: Assembly, FORTRAN, COBOL
Example: IBM 1401
C. Third Generation (1964–1975)
Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs)
New Features: Multiprogramming OS
Example: IBM 360
D. Fourth Generation (1975–present)
Technology: Microprocessors (LSI, VLSI)
Features: GUI, LAN, portable PCs
Example: Intel 8086, modern desktops
E. Fifth Generation (Ongoing)
Technology: Artificial Intelligence, Superconductors
Goal: Natural language processing, robotics
III. Types of Computers
A. Based on Technology
1. Digital Computers: Binary logic, general-purpose
2. Analog Computers: Measure physical values
3. Hybrid Computers: Combine digital + analog
features
B. Based on Size and Purpose
1. Microcomputers: Laptops, Desktops, Tablets
2. Minicomputers: Used in small businesses
3. Mainframes: Banks, Census
4. Supercomputers: Weather forecasting, scientific
computing
IV. Computer Memory
..A. Memory Concept
Stores both data and instructions.
Bit, Byte, Word, and higher units (KB, MB, GB, TB… YB)
C. Types of Memory
1. Primary Memory
RAM: Volatile
ROM: Non-volatile
2. Secondary Memory
Magnetic: HDD, Floppy
Optical: CD, DVD
Solid-State: SSD, Flash drives
3. Cache Memory
L1, L2 types: Faster access for CPU
V. Primary vs Secondary Memory
.
Featur Primar Secondary
e y Memory
Memor
y
Volatil Volatile Non-
ity (RAM) volatile
Speed Very Slower
Faster
Locati Inside External/
on mother internal
board drives
Exam RAM, HDD, SSD,
ple ROM CD/DVD
VI. CPU and Block Diagram
A. CPU Structure
ALU: Does arithmetic and logical operations
CU: Controls hardware interaction
Registers: Fastest temporary memory
B. Classification of Microprocessors
RISC: Simple instruction set (e.g., ARM, SPARC)
CISC: Complex instructions (e.g., Intel Pentium)
EPIC: Used in IA-64, supports parallelism
VII. Number Systems and Conversions
A. Types of Number Systems
1. Binary (Base-2): 0 and 1
2. Decimal (Base-10): 0–9
3. Octal (Base-8): 0–7
4. Hexadecimal (Base-16): 0–9, A–F
B. Conversion Rules
Binary to Decimal: Multiply each bit by 2^position
Decimal to Binary: Divide by 2 and reverse the remainders
VIII. Software and Types
A. System Software
1. Operating System
Examples: Windows, Linux, UNIX, Android
Functions: Memory mgmt, process mgmt, file handling
2. Language Translators
Compilers, Interpreters
B. Utility Software
Antivirus, File Compressor, Backup, Disk Defragmenter
C. Application Software
General-Purpose: Word, Excel
Custom: Railway reservation, billing software
D. Open Source & Others
Open source: Free and modifiable (e.g., Linux)
Freeware, Shareware, Proprietary software
IX. Operating System and Functions
A. Definition
Software that manages hardware and provides services to
other software.
B. Core Functions
1. Memory Management
2. Processor Scheduling
3. Device Management
4. File System Management
5. User Interface
C. Types of Operating Systems
Single-user, Multi-user
Real-time
Mobile OS: Android, Symbian
X. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Computers
A. Advantages
1. Speed and Accuracy
2. Data Storage
3. Automation
4. Decision Making with AI
5. Communication
C. Disadvantages
1. Health issues from long use
2. Data Theft & Privacy Threats
3. Job Displacement in some fields
4. Addiction or Overdependence
