Atomic Structure - B.Sc.
Chemistry Notes
1. Introduction & Discovery of Subatomic Particles
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory – matter is made of indivisible atoms.
• Discovery of electron: J.J. Thomson (cathode ray tube).
• Discovery of proton: Goldstein (canal rays).
• Discovery of neutron: Chadwick (1932).
• Atomic number (Z) = protons, Mass number (A) = protons + neutrons.
2. Atomic Models
• Thomson’s Model (Plum pudding) – electrons embedded in a sphere of positive charge.
• Rutherford’s Model – nucleus at center, electrons revolve; failed due to instability.
• Bohr’s Model:
- Electrons revolve in fixed orbits.
- Energy quantized: ∆E = hν.
- Limitations: could not explain multi-electron systems or spectra details.
3. Dual Nature of Matter & Radiation
• Planck’s Quantum Theory: Energy emitted in discrete packets (quanta). E = hν.
• Photoelectric Effect (Einstein): Light behaves as particles (photons).
• de Broglie Equation: λ = h/mv → matter has wave nature.
• Davisson-Germer Experiment confirmed electron diffraction.
4. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Impossible to know position (x) and momentum (p) simultaneously.
• ∆x·∆p ≥ h/4π.
• Hence, electron cannot have fixed path (orbit), only probability distribution.
5. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom (Schrödinger)
• Describes electron by wave function ψ.
• Probability density (|ψ|²) gives region where electron likely to be found.
• Quantum Numbers:
- Principal (n): shell, size, energy.
- Azimuthal (l): subshell, shape of orbital (s=0, p=1, d=2, f=3).
- Magnetic (m): orientation.
- Spin (s): +1/2, –1/2.
6. Shapes of Orbitals
• s-orbital: spherical.
• p-orbital: dumbbell (px, py, pz).
• d-orbital: cloverleaf shapes.
• f-orbital: complex shapes.
7. Principles Governing Electron Configuration
• Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons can have same set of 4 quantum numbers.
• Hund’s Rule: electrons occupy orbitals singly before pairing.
• Aufbau Principle: filling order based on n+l rule (lower first).
Example: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p...
8. Electronic Configuration of Elements
• H (Z=1): 1s¹
• He (Z=2): 1s²
• Li (Z=3): 1s² 2s¹
• C (Z=6): 1s² 2s² 2p²
• O (Z=8): 1s² 2s² 2p■
• Na (Z=11): 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s¹
• General: [noble gas] + valence shell electrons.
9. Summary
• Atom has protons, neutrons, electrons.
• Early models evolved → Quantum Mechanical Model.
• Electrons described by quantum numbers and orbitals.
• Rules (Aufbau, Hund, Pauli) decide electron configuration.
• Foundation of atomic and molecular chemistry.
