Class 11 Chemistry - Chapter 2: Structure of Atom
(Detailed Notes)
1. Introduction
Atom = smallest particle of matter that cannot be divided in chemical reactions. Modern study of
atoms began with discovery of subatomic particles.
2. Discovery of Subatomic Particles
- Electron: Discovered by J.J. Thomson (1897), charge = –1.602×10■¹■ C, mass = 9.109×10■³¹
kg.
- Proton: E. Goldstein (canal rays), charge = +1.602×10■¹■ C, mass = 1.67×10■²■ kg.
- Neutron: Chadwick (1932), neutral, mass = 1.675×10■²■ kg.
3. Atomic Models
- Thomson: Plum pudding model.
- Rutherford: Gold foil experiment → nucleus discovered.
- Bohr: Electrons revolve in fixed orbits; energy absorbed/emitted in jumps; angular momentum
quantized.
4. Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes
- Z = protons, A = protons + neutrons.
- Isotopes: same Z, different A. (¹H, ²H, ³H)
- Isobars: same A, different Z. (¹■C, ¹■N)
- Isotones: same neutrons. (¹■C, ¹■N)
5. Electromagnetic Radiation
c = λν; spectrum includes γ-rays < X-rays < UV < Visible < IR < Microwaves < Radio.
6. Planck’s Quantum Theory
Energy is quantized: E = hν.
7. Hydrogen Spectrum (Bohr)
E■ = –13.6/n² eV. Rydberg formula: 1/λ = R(1/n■² – 1/n■²).
Series: Lyman (UV), Balmer (Visible), Paschen, Brackett, Pfund (IR).
8. Dual Nature of Electron
- de Broglie wavelength: λ = h/mv.
- Uncertainty Principle: ∆x·∆p ≥ h/4π.
9. Quantum Mechanical Model
Schrödinger wave equation → orbitals (probability regions).
10. Quantum Numbers
- Principal (n): shell, energy.
- Azimuthal (l): shape (s, p, d, f).
- Magnetic (m): orientation (–l to +l).
- Spin (s): +½ or –½.
11. Rules for Filling Orbitals
1. Aufbau Principle: Orbitals filled in order of increasing energy (n+l rule). Example: 4s before 3d.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons have same 4 quantum numbers; orbital holds max 2
electrons with opposite spins (↑↓).
3. Hund’s Rule: Degenerate orbitals filled singly first with parallel spins, then pairing occurs.
12. Examples
- Oxygen (Z=8): 1s² 2s² 2p■ → 2p orbitals: ↑↓ ↑ ↑
- Carbon (Z=6): 1s² 2s² 2p² → 2p orbitals: ↑ ↑
13. Electronic Configuration
Written by shells/subshells. Example: Na (Z=11) = 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s¹ or [Ne]3s¹.
