What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple

signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single
communication/physical line.
 

Types of Multiplexing 
There are two types of Multiplexing :

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing :

Frequency division multiplexing is a defined as a type of multiplexing where the bandwidth of a

single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller, independent frequency channels.
 
Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.

In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross talk, due to the fact that in this type of
multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In order to prevent the inter-
channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be placed between each channel. These
unused strips between each channel are known as guard bands.
 
2. Time Division Multiplexing :

Time division multiplexing is a defined as a type of multiplexing where in FDM, instead of

sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared. Each
connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with same frequency (bandwidth) at different
times.

There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing

Synchronous TDM :

Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the input frame already has a
slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of
time slots. 

Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to send, a slot remains
empty in the output frame.

In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the beginning of each frame..
Statistical TDM :

Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the output frame collects data
from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in Synchronous TDM.

In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the slot that is being
sent to the output frame.

Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time division multiplexing as the channel capacity is
fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency. 
What Does Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Mean?
Time division multiplexing (TDM) is a communications process that transmits two or more
streaming digital signals over a common channel. In TDM, incoming signals are divided into
equal fixed-length time slots. After multiplexing, these signals are transmitted over a shared
medium and reassembled into their original format after de-multiplexing. Time slot selection is
directly proportional to overall system efficiency.

Time division multiplexing (TDM) is also known as a digital circuit switched.

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Techopedia Explains Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

TDM was initially developed in 1870 for large system telegraphy implementation. Packet
switching networks use TDM for telecommunication links, i.e., packets are divided into fixed
lengths and assigned fixed time slots for transmission. Each divided signal and packet, which
must be transmitted within assigned time slots, are reassembled into a complete signal at the
destination.

TDM is comprised of two major categories: TDM and synchronous time division multiplexing
(sync TDM). TDM is used for long-distance communication links and bears heavy data traffic
loads from end users. Sync TDM is used for high-speed transmission.

During each time slot a TDM frame (or data packet) is created as a sample of the signal of a
given sub-channel; the frame also consists of a synchronization channel and sometimes an error
correction channel. After the first sample of the given sub-channel (along with its associated and
newly created error correction and synchronization channels) are taken, the process is repeated
for a second sample when a second frame is created, then repeated for a third frame, etc.; and the
frames are interleaved one after the other. When the time slot has expired, the process is repeated
for the next sub-channel.

Examples of utilizing TDM include digitally transmitting several telephone conversations over
the same four-wire copper cable or fiber optical cable in a TDM telephone network; these
systems may be pulse code modulation (PCM) or plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH)
systems. Another example involves sampling left and right stereo signals using resource
interchange file format (RIFF), also referred to as waveform audio file format (WAV), audio
standard interleaves. Also synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) and synchronous optical
networking (SONET) network transmission standards have incorporated TDM; and these have
surpassed PDH.

TDM can also be used within time division multiple access (TDMA) where stations sharing the
same frequency channel can communicate with one another. GSM utilizes both TDM and
TDMA.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Definition: A technique by which analog signal gets converted into digital form in order to
have signal transmission through a digital network is known as Pulse Code Modulation. It is
abbreviated as PCM.

PCM systems are basically signal coders also known as waveform coders. PCM allows the
representation of the continuous time message signal as a sequence of binary coded pulses. The
binary form permits only 2 probable states i.e., 0 and 1.

The major steps involved in PCM is sampling, quantizing and encoding which will be
discussed in detail in the upcoming sections.

Basics of PCM

In pulse code modulation, the analog message signal is first sampled, and then the amplitude of
the sample is approximated to the nearest set of quantization level. This allows the representation
of time and amplitude in a discrete manner. Thereby, generating a discrete signal.

This discrete signal is then converted into its binary form for the transmission of the signal.

It is to be noted here that, in PCM technique the signal gets transmitted in the coded format and
must be decoded at the receiver in order to have the original message signal.

Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation

We know that modulation can be defined as the process of changing the carrier signal’s
parameters by the instant values of the message signal. The transmission of message signal can
be done mainly for communication & the high-frequency signal like a carrier signal doesn’t
include data, however, it is used for lengthy-distance communication. The classification of
modulation techniques can be done based on the type of modulation used. For instance, the
digital modulation uses PCM or Pulse Code Modulation technique. In PCM, the message signal
can be signified through a series of coded pulses. So, this message signal can be attained through
signifying the signal in the form of discrete in both times as well as amplitude. This article
discusses an overview of pulse code modulation and demodulation.

What is Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation?

Pulse code modulation is a method that is used to convert an analog signal into a digital signal so
that a modified analog signal can be transmitted through the digital communication network.
PCM is in binary form, so there will be only two possible states high and low(0 and 1). We can
also get back our analog signal by demodulation. The Pulse Code Modulation process is done in
three steps Sampling, Quantization, and Coding. There are two specific types of pulse code
modulations such as differential pulse code modulation (DPCM) and adaptive differential pulse
code modulation (ADPCM).

Pulse Code Modulation Block Diagram

The basic elements of PCM mainly include the transmitter section and receiver section. The
pulse code modulation steps are discussed below

Block Diagram
of Pulse Code Modulation

Here is a block diagram of the steps which are included in PCM. In sampling, we are using a
PAM sampler that is Pulse Amplitude Modulation Sampler which converts continuous amplitude
signal into Discrete-time- continuous signal (PAM pulses). The basic block diagram of PCM is
given below for better understanding.

To get a pulse code modulated waveform from an analog waveform at the transmitter end
(source) of a communications circuit, the amplitude of the analog signal samples at regular time
intervals. The sampling rate or the number of samples per second is several times the maximum
frequency. The message signal converted into the binary form will be usually in the number of
levels which is always to a power of 2. This process is called quantization.
Basic Elements of Pulse Code Modulation System

At the receiver end, a pulse code demodulator decodes the binary signal back into pulses with the
same quantum levels as those in the modulator. By further processes, we can restore the original
analog waveform.

Pulse Code Modulation Theory

The above block diagram describes the whole process of PCM. The source of the continuous-
time message signal is passed through a low pass filter and then sampling, Quantization,
Encoding will be done. We will see each in detail step by step.

Sampling

Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants,

converts the continuous signal into a discrete signal. For example, conversion of a sound wave to
a sequence of samples. The Sample is a value or set of values at a point in time or it can be
spaced. Sampler extract samples of a continuous signal, it is a subsystem ideal sampler produces
samples that are equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the specified
various points. The Sampling process generates a flat-top Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM)
signal.
 Analog and Sampled Signal

Sampling frequency, Fs is the number of average samples per second also known as the
Sampling rate. According to the Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate should be at least 2 times
the upper cutoff frequency. Sampling frequency, Fs>=2*fmax to avoid Aliasing Effect. If the
sampling frequency is very higher than the Nyquist rate it becomes Oversampling, theoretically a
bandwidth-limited signal can be reconstructed if sampled above the Nyquist rate. If the sampling
frequency is less than the Nyquist rate it will become Undersampling.

Basically, two types of techniques are used for the sampling process. Those are 1. Natural
Sampling and 2. Flat- top Sampling.

Quantization

In quantization, an analog sample with amplitude that converted into a digital sample with
amplitude that takes one of a specifically defined set of quantization values. Quantization is done
by dividing the range of possible values of the analog samples into some different levels and
assigning the center value of each level to any sample in the quantization interval. Quantization
approximates the analog sample values with the nearest quantization values.

So almost all the quantized samples will differ from the original samples by a small amount.
That amount is called quantization error. The result of this quantization error is we will hear a
hissing noise when playing a random signal. Converting analog samples into binary numbers that
are 0 and 1.
In most cases, we will use uniform quantizers. Uniform quantization is applicable when the
sample values are in a finite range (Fmin, Fmax). The total data range is divided into 2n levels,
let it be L intervals. They will have an equal length Q. Q is known as Quantization interval or
quantization step size. In uniform quantization, there will be no quantization error.

Uniformly Quantized Signal

As we know,
L=2n, then Step size Q = (Fmax – Fmin) / L

Interval i is mapped to the middle value. We will store or send only the index value of quantized
value.

An Index value of quantized value Qi (F) = [F – Fmin / Q]

Quantized value Q (F) = Qi (F) Q + Q / 2 + Fmin

But there are some problems raised in uniform quantization those are

 Only optimal for the uniformly distributed signal.

 Real audio signals are more concentrated near zeros.
 The Human ear is more sensitive to quantization errors at small values.

The solution to this problem is using Non- uniform quantization. In this process, the quantization
interval is smaller near zero.
Low Pass Filter (LPF)

This LPF is used to remove the high frequency (HF) components that are present within the input
analog signal. Here this signal is higher as compared to the highest frequency message signal so
that it avoids aliasing of the message signal.

Regenerative Repeater

The signal strength can be enhanced through this regenerative repeater. So, the channel’s output
also includes a regenerative repeater circuit to balance the signal loss, renovate the signal & also
increases the signal strength.

Decoder

The main function of a decoder circuit is to decode the pulse-coded signal to repeat the actual
signal. This circuit works like a demodulator.

Reconstruction Filter

After the conversion of DAC (digital-to-analog conversion) is done with the help of the decoder
and regenerative circuit, then an LPF (low-pass filter) is used to get back the original signal. So,
this is known as the reconstruction filter

Therefore, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit (PCM) is used to digitize the specified analog
signal, code it, sample it & after that, it transmits in the form of analog. So, this entire procedure
can be repeated within a reverse model to get the actual signal.

Coding

The encoder encodes the quantized samples. Each quantized sample is encoded into an 8-bit
codeword by using A-law in the encoding process.

 Bit 1 is the most significant bit (MSB), it represents the polarity of the sample. “1” represents
positive polarity and “0” represents negative polarity.
 Bit 2,3 and 4 will defines the location of the sample value. These three bits together form a
linear curve for low-level negative or positive samples.
 Bit 5,6,7 and 8 are the least significant bits (LSB) it represents one of the segments’ quantized
value. Each segment is divided into 16 quantum levels.

Pulse code modulation is similar to PWM, PAM otherwise PPM however there is a significant
disparity among them that is they are analog pulse modulation systems but Pulse code
modulation is a digital pulse modulation system.

So, the output of PCM is in the form of coded digital and it is in the form of digital signals of
stable width, position & amplitude.
The data can be transmitted in code words format. A pulse code modulation system includes a
transmitter like a PCM encoder & a receiver like a PCM decoder.

The important operations within the transmitter of pulse code modulation mainly include
sampling, quantizing, and encoding.

Generally, these operations are performed within a similar circuit namely ADC.

Pulse Code Demodulation

Pulse Code Demodulation will be doing the same modulation process in reverse. Demodulation
starts with the decoding process, during transmission the PCM signal will be affected by noise
interference. So, before the PCM signal sends to the PCM demodulator, we have to recover the
signal to the original level for that we are using a comparator. The PCM signal is a series pulse
wave signal, but for demodulation, we need a wave to be parallel.

By using a serial to parallel converter the series pulse wave signal will be converted into a
parallel digital signal. After that the signal will pass through the n-bits decoder, it should be a
Digital to Analog converter. Decoder recovers the original quantization values of the digital
signal. This quantization value also includes a lot of high-frequency harmonics with original
audio signals. For avoiding unnecessary signals we utilize a low-pass filter at the final part.

Advantages

The advantages of pulse code modulation include the following.

 Analog signals can be transmitted over a high-speed digital communication system.

 The probability of occurring error will reduce by the use of appropriate coding methods.
 PCM is used in Telkom system, digital audio recording, digitized video special effects, digital
video, voice mail.
 PCM is also used in Radio control units as transmitters and also a receiver for remote-controlled
cars, boats, planes.
 The PCM signal is more resistant to interference than normal signals.

Pulse Code Modulation Applications

The applications of PCM include the following.

 PCM technique is mainly used to change the signal from analog to digital signal so that an analog
signal which is changed can be broadcasted throughout the digital communication network. This
modulation is available in binary form, so the available possible states will be two types like high
& low.
 Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a technique used to represent sampled analog signals digitally.
It is the normal form of digital audio within computers, digital telephony, compact discs & other
digital audio applications.
  These modulations can be used for temperature regulation, cold or heat storage through high
storage density & thermal comfort within buildings that need a narrow range of temperature.
Thus, if the solar energy is stored efficiently, then it can be used for night cold.
The pulse code modulation refers to the utilization of a precise set of rules for changing a signal
into a stream of digits.

Limitations of PCM

The sampling theorem like Nyquist–Shannon illustrates the operating of pulse code modulation
devices can be done without establishing distortions in their frequency bands if these bands offer
a sampling frequency as a minimum twice that of the maximum frequency included within the
i/p signal.

For instance, the voiceband frequency which is used mainly ranges from 300 Hz -3400 Hz. For
the efficient renovation of the voice signal, the applications of telephony normally utilize a
sampling frequency of 8000 Hz which is twice the maximum working voice frequency.

Apart from in any PCM system, there are impairment implicit possible sources like the following
Selecting a separate value that is close but not precisely at the analog signal range for every
sample guides to quantization error.

In between the samples, no signal measurement can be made; so, the sampling theorem
assurances non-ambiguous depiction & signal recovery simply if it has no energy at ‘fs/2’
frequency, high frequencies will not be properly signified otherwise recovered & include aliasing
distortion toward the signal under the Nyquist frequency.

Because samples are reliant on time, so a precise clock is necessary for precise reproduction. If
any of the encodings otherwise decoding CLK is not steady, these defects will directly influence
the output of the device quantity.

Thus, this is all about an overview of PCM or pulse code modulation in digital communication.
PCM is a digital system used to transmit analog data & convert it to digital form. By using this
system, it is achievable to digitize all kinds of analog data like a video with full-motion, music,
voice, telemetry, etc.  We believe that the information given in this article is helpful for you for a
better understanding of this concept. Furthermore, any queries regarding this article or any help
in implementing electrical and electronics projects, you can approach us by commenting in the
comment section below. Here is a question you, Here is a question for you, what is DPCM?

What is Modulation?

Basically, it is a process in a communication system. For communication, we need some

fundamental elements. One is the high-frequency carrier wave and the other is the information
that has to be transmitted (modulating signal) (or) input signal. These are essential for
communication which is done using a device from one place to another. All in all, we need the
help of the communication system.
An electronic communication system converts our message (information) into an electronic
signal and the electronic signal carried out by carrier waves to the destination.

Message (information)

(or)

Modulating signal

Superposition of modulating signal onto a carrier wave is known as modulation.

Modulation is defined as,

Varying any one of the fundamental parameters of a carrier wave in accordance with the
modulating signal. A carrier wave can be represented as a sine (or) cosine.

C(t) = Ac sin (ωct + Ɵ)

Also Read: Frequency Modulation VS Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude Phase

If we vary the amplitude of the carrier wave in accordance with the modulating signal (input
signal) it is known as Amplitude Modulation.

Similarly, it can be frequency modulation and phase modulation also in other words modulation
is the phenomenon of “Superimposition of modulating signal (input signal) into the carrier
wave”.

Why Do We Need Modulation?

Practically speaking, modulation is required for;

 High range transmission

 Quality of transmission
 To avoid the overlapping of signals.

High Range Transmission: (Effective Length of Antenna)

For effective communication, the length of the antenna should be λ4\frac{\lambda }{4}4λtimes
of the modulating signal.

Hmin = λ4\frac{\lambda }{4}4λ

λ – wavelength of the modulating signal (or) transmitting signal H> λ4\frac{\lambda }{4}4λ

(example) if i need to transmit signal of frequency of f = 20 kHz

as we know c = f λ

3 × 108 = 20 × 103 (λ)

3×1082×104=λ\frac{3\times {{10}^{8}}}{2\times {{10}^{4}}}=\lambda2×1043×108=λ λ=32×104\lambda =\

frac{3}{2}\times {{10}^{4}}λ=23×104

So Hmin⁡≃λ4=38×104=0.375×104m{{H}_{\min }}\simeq \frac{\lambda }{4}=\frac{3}{8}\

times {{10}^{4}}=0.375\times {{10}^{4}}mHmin≃4λ=83×104=0.375×104m

Hmin = 3750 m

Hmin = 3750 m is practically impossible, for that we can transmit our modulating signal onto a
carrier wave of frequency 1MHz, what we did? We raised our transmission frequency from
20kHz to 1mHz.
Now let us find out what is the Hmin needed for good transmission?

c = fλ

3 × 108 = 1×106 (λ)

If we increase transmitting frequency, wavelengths

3×108−61=λ\frac{3\times {{10}^{8-6}}}{1}=\lambda13×108−6=λ will decreases so, Hmin also decreases.

3 × 102 = λ ⇒f↑and  λ↓→Hmin⁡↓\Rightarrow f\uparrow and \; \lambda \downarrow \to H\min \

downarrow⇒f↑andλ↓→Hmin↓

λ = 300 m

Hmin = λ/4=3004=75m{}^{\lambda }/{}_{4}=\frac{300}{4}=75mλ/4=4300=75m

This is practically possible, so to transmit a low-frequency signal we need modulation to increase

the transmission frequency.

Quality of Transmission: (Power of Transmission by Antenna)

Since, from Q-factor, we know sharpness (or) quality is maximum when power is maximum

Sharpness (or) quality α power

Power radiated by a linear antenna is

Pα1λ2⇒Power=ℓλ2P\alpha \frac{1}{{{\lambda }^{2}}}\Rightarrow Power=\frac{\ell }{{{\

lambda }^{2}}}Pαλ21⇒Power=λ2ℓ

Where ℓ→\ell \toℓ→ length of the antenna

λ→\lambda \toλ→ wavelength of the transmitting signal

for small(λ)(or)High frequency}→Transmission power is high→quality of transmission high\left.\
begin{matrix} for\,small(\lambda ) \\ (or) \\ High\,frequency \end{matrix}\right\} \to
Transmission\,power\,is\,high\to quality\,of\,transmission\,highforsmall(λ)(or)Highfrequency⎭⎪⎬⎪⎫
→Transmissionpowerishigh→qualityoftransmissionhigh.

for high(λ)(or)small frequency}→Transmission power is small→quality of transmission low\left.\
begin{matrix} for\,high(\lambda ) \\ (or) \\ small\,frequency \end{matrix}\right\} \to
Transmission\,power\,is\,small\to quality\,of\,transmission\,lowforhigh(λ)(or)smallfrequency⎭⎪⎬⎪⎫
→Transmissionpowerissmall→qualityoftransmissionlow
Avoiding the Overlapping of Signals

Two different transmitting stations transmit signals of the same frequency they will get mixed up
(or) overlap one on other to avoid this we need to modulate these signals by different carriers
waves.

When we talk about amplitude modulation it is a technique that is used to vary the amplitude of
the high-frequency carrier wave in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal. But
the frequency of the carrier wave remains constant. Now let us see, what are carrier waves and
modulating signals.

Amplitude modulation or AM as it is often called is a form of modulation used for radio

transmissions for broadcasting and two way radio communication applications.

Although one of the earliest used forms of modulation it is still used today, mainly for long,
medium and short wave broadcasting and for some aeronautical point to point communications.

One of the key reasons for the use of amplitude modulation was its ease of use. The system
simply required the carrier amplitude to be modulated, but more usefully the detector required in
the receiver could be a simple diode based circuit. This meant that AM radios did not need
complicated demodulators and costs were reduced - a key requirement for widespread use of
radio technology, especially in the early days of radio when ICs were not available.

Amplitude modulation history

The first amplitude modulated signal was transmitted in 1901 by a Canadian engineer named
Reginald Fessenden. He took a continuous spark transmission and placed a carbon microphone
in the antenna lead.

The sound waves impacting on the microphone varied its resistance and in turn this varied the
intensity of the transmission. Although very crude, signals were audible over a distance of a few
hundred metres, although there was a rasping sound caused by the spark.
With the introduction of continuous sine wave signals, transmissions improved significantly, and
AM soon became the standard for voice transmissions. Nowadays, amplitude modulation, AM is
used for audio broadcasting on the long medium and short wave bands, and for two way radio
communication at VHF for aircraft.

However as there now are more efficient and convenient methods of modulating a signal, its use
is declining, although it will still be very many years before it is no longer used.

Amplitude modulation applications

Amplitude modulation is used in a variety of applications. Even though it is not as widely used
as it was in previous years in its basic format it can nevertheless still be found.

 Broadcast transmissions:   AM is still widely used for broadcasting on the long, medium
and short wave bands. It is simple to demodulate and this means that radio receivers
capable of demodulating amplitude modulation are cheap and simple to manufacture.
Nevertheless many people are moving to high quality forms of transmission like
frequency modulation, FM or digital transmissions.
 Air band radio:   VHF transmissions for many airborne applications still use AM. . It is
used for ground to air radio communications as well as two way radio links for ground
staff as well.
 Single sideband:   Amplitude modulation in the form of single sideband is still used for
HF radio links. Using a lower bandwidth and providing more effective use of the
transmitted power this form of modulation is still used for many point to point HF links.
 Quadrature amplitude modulation:   AM is widely used for the transmission of data in
everything from short range wireless links such as Wi-Fi to cellular telecommunications
and much more. Effectively it is formed by having two carriers 90° out of phase.

These form some of the main uses of amplitude modulation. However in its basic form, this form
of modulation is being used less as a result of its inefficient use of both spectrum and power.

What is amplitude modulation?

In order that a radio signal can carry audio or other information for broadcasting or for two way
radio communication, it must be modulated or changed in some way. Although there are a
number of ways in which a radio signal may be modulated, one of the easiest is to change its
amplitude in line with variations of the sound.

In this way the amplitude of the radio frequency signal varies in line with the instantaneous value
of the intensity of the modulation. This means that the radio frequency signal has a
representation of the sound wave superimposed in it.

What is Frequency Modulation?

Frequency modulation is a technique or a process of encoding information on a particular signal
(analogue or digital) by varying the carrier wave frequency in accordance with the frequency of
the modulating signal. As we know, a modulating signal is nothing but information or message
that has to be transmitted after being converted into an electronic signal.

Much like amplitude modulation, frequency modulation also has a similar approach where a
carrier signal is modulated by the input signal. However, in the case of FM, the amplitude of the
modulated signal is kept or it remains constant.

The frequency modulation index is mostly over 1 and it usually requires a high bandwidth at a
range of 200 kHz. FM operates in a very high-frequency range normally between  88 to 108
Megahertz. There are complex circuits with an infinite number of sidebands that help in
receiving high-quality signals with high sound quality.

Meanwhile, broadcast stations in the VHF portion of the frequency spectrum between 88.5 and
108 MHz often use large values of deviation (±75 kHz). This is known as wide-band FM
(WBFM). Even though these signals support high-quality transmissions they do occupy a large
amount of bandwidth. Normally, 200 kHz is allowed for each wide-band FM transmission. On
the other hand, communications use very little bandwidth. Alternatively, narrowband FM
(NBFM) often uses deviation figures of around ±3 kHz. Besides, narrow-band FM is mostly used
for two-way radio communication applications.

Applications of Frequency Modulation

If we talk about the applications of frequency modulation, it is mostly used in radio broadcasting.
It offers a great advantage in radio transmission as it has a larger signal-to-noise ratio. Meaning,
it results in low radio frequency interference. This is the main reason that many radio stations use
FM to broadcast music over the radio.

Additionally, some of its uses are also found in radar, telemetry, seismic prospecting and in
EEG, different radio systems, music synthesis as well as in video-transmission instruments. In
radio transmission, frequency modulation has a good advantage over other modulation. It has a
larger signal-to-noise ratio meaning it will reject radio frequency interferences much better than
an equal power amplitude modulation (AM) signal. For this major reason, most music is
broadcasted over FM radio.

FM Modulators
There are several methods that can be used to generate either direct or indirect frequency-
modulated signals.

 A voltage-controlled oscillator or Varactor diode oscillator:  A voltage-controlled

oscillator can be used to form Direct FM modulation by directly feeding the message into
the input of the oscillator. In the case of the varactor diode, we place this device within
the tuned circuit of an oscillator circuit.
  Crystal oscillator circuit: Varactor diode can also be used within a crystal oscillator
circuit wherein the signal needs to be multiplied in frequency, and only narrowband FM
is attained.
 Phase-locked loop: This is an excellent method to generate frequency modulation
signals. However, the constraints within the loop should be checked carefully and once
everything is stable it offers an excellent solution.

Basic System
The basic communications system has:

Transmitter: The sub-system that takes the information signal and processes it prior to transmission. The
transmitter modulates the information onto a carrier signal, amplifies the signal and broadcasts it over
the channel

Channel: The medium which transports the modulated signal to the receiver. Air acts as the channel for
broadcasts like radio. May also be a wiring system like cable TV or the Internet.

Receiver: The sub-system that takes in the transmitted signal from the channel and processes it to
retrieve the information signal. The receiver must be able to discriminate the signal from other signals
which may using the same channel (called tuning), amplify the signal for processing and demodulate
(remove the carrier) to retrieve the information. It also then processes the information for reception (for
example, broadcast on a loudspeaker).

Modulation
The information signal can rarely be transmitted as is, it must be processed. In order to use
electromagnetic transmission, it must first be converted from audio into an electric signal. The
conversion is accomplished by a transducer. After conversion it is used to modulate a carrier
signal.

A carrier signal is used for two reasons:

 To reduce the wavelength for efficient transmission and reception (the optimum antenna
size is ½ or ¼ of a wavelength). A typical audio frequency of 3000 Hz will have a
wavelength of 100 km and would need an effective antenna length of 25 km! By
 comparison, a typical carrier for FM is 100 MHz, with a wavelength of 3 m, and could
use an antenna only 80 cm long.
 To allow simultaneous use of the same channel, called multiplexing. Each unique signal
can be assigned a different carrier frequency (like radio stations) and still share the same
channel. The phone company actually invented modulation to allow phone conversations
to be transmitted over common lines.

The process of modulation means to systematically use the information signal (what you want to
transmit) to vary some parameter of the carrier signal. The carrier signal is usually just a simple,
single-frequency sinusoid (varies in time like a sine wave).

The basic sine wave goes like V(t) = Vo sin (2 f t + ) where the parameters are defined below:

V(t) the voltage of the signal as a function of time.

Vo the amplitude of the signal (represents the maximum value achieved each cycle)
f the frequency of oscillation, the number of cycles per second (also known as Hertz = 1 cycle
per second)
the phase of the signal, representing the starting point of the cycle.

To modulate the signal just means to systematically vary one of the three parameters of the
signal: amplitude, frequency or phase. Therefore, the type of modulation may be categorized as
either

AM: amplitude modulation

FM: frequency modulation or

PM: phase modulation

Note: PM may be an unfamiliar term but is commonly used. The characteristics of PM are very
similar to FM and so the terms are often used interchangeably.

FM
Frequency modulation uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the carrier frequency within
some small range about its original value. Here are the three signals in mathematical form:

 Information: Vm(t)
 Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin ( 2  fc t + 
 FM: VFM (t) = Vco sin (2 fc + (f/Vmo) Vm (t)t + 

We have replaced the carrier frequency term, with a time-varying frequency. We have also
introduced a new term: f, the peak frequency deviation. In this form, you should be able to see
that the carrier frequency term: fc + (f/Vmo) Vm (t) now varies between the extremes of fc - f
and fc + f. The interpretation of f becomes clear: it is the farthest away from the original
frequency that the FM signal can be. Sometimes it is referred to as the "swing" in the frequency.

We can also define a modulation index for FM, analogous to AM:

 = f/fm , where fm is the maximum modulating frequency used.

The simplest interpretation of the modulation index, is as a measure of the peak frequency
deviation, f. In other words, represents a way to express the peak deviation frequency as a
multiple of the maximum modulating frequency, fm, i.e. f =  fm.

Example: suppose in FM radio that the audio signal to be transmitted ranges from 20 to 15,000
Hz (it does). If the FM system used a maximum modulating index, , of 5.0, then the frequency
would "swing" by a maximum of 5 x 15 kHz = 75 kHz above and below the carrier frequency.

Here is a simple FM signal:

Here, the carrier is at 30 Hz, and the modulating frequency is 5 Hz. The modulation index is
about 3, making the peak frequency deviation about 15 Hz. That means the frequency will vary
somewhere between 15 and 45 Hz. How fast the cycle is completed is a function of the
modulating frequency.

Communication System
Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for
information exchange.

OR
Communication is simply the basic process of exchanging information.

The electronics equipements which are used for communication purpose, are called
communication equipments. Different communication equipments when assembled together
form a communication system.

Typical example of communication system are line telephony and line telegraphy, radio
telephony and radio telegraphy, radio broadcasting, point-to-point communication and mobile
communication, computer communication, radar communication, television broadcasting, radio
telemetry, radio aids to navigation, radio aids to aircraft landing etc.

The Communication Process

In the most fundamental sense, communication involves the transmission of information from
one point to another through a succession of process as listed below :

1. The generation of a thought pattern or image in the mind of an originator.

2. The description of that image, with a certain measure of precision, by a set of oral visual
symbols.
3. The encoding of these symbols in a form that is suitable for transmission over a physical medium
of interest.
4. The transmission of the encoded symbols to the desired destination.
5. The decoding and reproduction of the original symbols.
6. The recreation of the original thought pattern or image, with a definable degradation in quality,
in the mind of recipient.

Block Diagram of Communication System

Fig.1 shows the block diagram of a general communication system, in which the different
functional elements are represented by blocks.

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The essential components of a communication system are information source, input transducer,
transmitter, communication channel, receiver  and destination.

Now, we shall discuss the functioning of these blocks.

(i) Information Source

As we know, a communication system serves to communicate a message or information. This

information originates in the information source.

In general, there can be various messages in the form of words, group of words, code, symbols,
sound signal etc. However, out of these messages, only the desired message is selected and
communicated.

Therefore, we can say that the function of information source is to produce required message
which has to be transmitted.

(ii) Input Transducer

A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.

The message from the information source may or may not be electrical in nature. In a case when
the message produced by the information source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is
used to convert it into a time-varying electrical signal.

For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage

which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.

(iii) Transmitter

The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects.

For example in radio broadcasting the electrical signal obtained from sound signal, is processed
to restrict its range of audio frequencies (upto 5 kHz in amplitude modulation radio broadcast )
and is often amplified.

In wire telephony, no real processing is needed. However, in long-distance radio communication,

signal amplification is necessary before modulation.

Modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is
superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal.

In short, we can say that inside the transmitter, signal processings such as restriction of range of
audio frequencies, amplification and modulation of  signal are achieved.
All these processings of the message signal are done just to ease the transmission of the signal
through the channel.

(iv) The Channel and The Noise

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to
the receiver. In other words, we can say that the function of the channel is to provide a physical
connection between the transmitter and the receiver.

There are two types of channels, namely point-to-point channels and broadcast channels.

Example of point-to-point channels are wire lines, microwave links and optical fibres. Wire-lines
operate by guided electromagnetic waves and they are used for local telephone transmission.

In case of microwave links, the transmitted signal is radiated as an electromagnetic wave in free
space. Microwave links are used in long distance telephone transmission.

An optical fibre is a low-loss, well-controlled, guided optical medium. Optical fibres are used in
optical communications.

Although these three channels operate differently, they all provide a physical medium for the
transmission of signals from one point to another point. Therefore, for these channels, the term
point-to-point is used.

On the other hand, the broadcast channel provides a capability where several receiving stations
can be reached simultaneously from a single transmitter.

An example of a broadcast channel is a satellite in geostationary orbit, which covers about one
third of the earth’s surface.

During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced
in the system.

Noise is an unwanted signal which tend to interfere with the required signal. Noise signal is
always random in character. Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a communication
system. However, the noise has its greatest effect on the signal in the channel.

 (v) Receiver

The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the
distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process
known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation
carried out in transmitter.
(vi) Destination

Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its
original form.

For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer
i.e. converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.