Types of level sensors:

1. Analog Level Sensors

Continuous level sensors provide a continuous level measurement from the lowest
to the highest point. They will be classified into level sensors for liquids and level
sensors for solids.

1.1 Level Sensors for Liquids

1.1.1 Float Sensor

The simplest level sensor for liquids is the float one. The float is actually
a liquid level transducer with mechanical movement, therefore a second
transducer will be needed to obtain an
electrical output that will be proportional to
the level. It consists of a float located in a
liquid and connected to the outside of the
tank, directly indicating the level. The
connection can be direct, magnetic or
hydraulic. It is worth mentioning that in
closed tanks, under vacuum or under
pressure that must be sealed, it is
customary to use floats with torque arms, magnetically coupled floats
and float-operated hydraulic devices. It is important to mention that the
float can have any shape, whether round, cylindrical or a combination of
both. Their sizes may also vary depending on the dimensions of the
tank in which they will be used. The material with which it is constructed
must also be chosen in a way that resists corrosion.

1.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure Sensor

Manometric Sensor:
It consists of a pressure gauge connected directly to the bottom of the
tank. The manometer measures the pressure
due to the height of liquid that exists between
the level of the tank and the axis of the
instrument. It only works for clean fluids,
since dirty liquids can cause the bellows to
lose its elasticity. Measurement is limited to
open tanks and the level could be distorted by
variations in liquid density.

Membrane Sensor:
 It uses a membrane connected with a sealed tube to the
receiving instrument. The force exerted by the liquid column
on the membrane area compresses the internal air to a
pressure equal to that exerted by the liquid column. The
sensor is delicate since any small leak of the air contained in
the diaphragm would destroy the calibration of the sensor.

Bubble Sensor:
Using a flow regulator, a small flow of air or inert gas is passed through
a tube (submerged in the tank to the minimum
level) until a continuous stream of bubbles is
produced. The pressure required to produce the
continuous flow of bubbles is a measure of the
liquid column. This system is very advantageous
in applications with corrosive liquids with
suspended materials (the fluid does not
penetrate the meter or the connecting pipe).

Differential Pressure Sensor:

It consists of a diaphragm in contact with the liquid in the tank, which
allows measuring the hydrostatic pressure
at a point on the bottom of the tank. In an
open tank this pressure is proportional to
the height of the liquid at that point and its
specific weight. The diaphragm is part of a
pneumatic or electronic differential pressure
transmitter. The accuracy of differential
pressure sensors is quite good. It is
important to mention that the diaphragm
material must be compatible with the fluid found in the tank.

1.1.3 Capacitance Sensor

These sensors use an insulated metal electrode that is inserted along
the wall of the container as one of the capacitor
plates. The wall of the container is the other
plate of the capacitor. The variations in the
dielectric characteristics of the material between
the electrode and the wall, as the interface
between the air and the material rises or falls,
are measured with a capacitance bridge, which
is an electronic circuit that powers the electrode
at a high frequency, which reduces the
capacitive reactance of the assembly and this
allows partially alleviate the inconvenience of
 coating the electrode with the product. 17 It is characterized by having
no moving parts, they are light, have good resistance to corrosion and
are easy to clean. When the tank is empty, the dielectric medium
between the plates is air. As the level of the material begins to rise, it
begins to cover the conductive plates, and therefore the dielectric
begins to change. This change produces an increase in the capacitance
between the conductors, which behaves linearly with respect to the
height of the material in the tank. The capacitance is measured, and
provides a direct value of the level of the material in the tank.

1.1.4 Radar or Microwave Sensor

This system uses electromagnetic waves in the microwave band
(typically in the microwave band X, 10 GHz) as
the basis for its measurements. It is a very
recent technology, and it performs continuous
measurements of the material level. Basically
the system works by transmitting the waves from
the highest part of the tank downwards, and a
sensor located in the transmitter captures the
amount of energy reflected by the material. The
time it takes for the reflected waves to return to
the transmitter is used as a basis for determining the height of the
material within the tank. For continuous level measurements, there are
two types of systems: wireless and guided.

1.1.5 Ultrasonic Sensor

These systems use sound waves as a basis to carry out their
measurements. These waves cover frequencies
between 20 KHz and 200 KHz. A transducer located
at the top of the tank transmits sound waves to the
surface of the material, in the form of bursts. Echoes
of these bursts are reflected to the transducer, which
measures the time between the generation of the
bursts and their echoes. Generally, wave bursts are
produced by a piezoelectric crystal that converts
electrical impulses into sound energy that travels as
a wave at the set frequency and at a constant speed
in a specific medium, which may be air or another gas. The sound
waves are emitted in bursts and their echoes are received again by the
transducer, which calculates the distance according to the time elapsed
between generation and reception of echoes.

1.2 Level Sensors for Solids

1.2.1 Electromechanical Polling Sensor
It consists of a small moving weight supported by a cable from the top of
the silo using pulleys. A motor and a
programmer located outside establish a work
cycle of the weight. This gently lowers inside
the hopper until it hits the solids. At that
moment, the cable loosens, and the sensor
reverses the direction of movement of the
weight, causing it to rise to the top of the
hopper, where it stops, repeating the cycle
again. An external indicator marks the point
where the peso has reversed its movement, thus indicating the level at
that moment. The sensor is characterized by its simplicity, it can be
used in level control, but it must be very robust mechanically to avoid
possible breakage of the assembly inside the silo, which could lead to
possible breakage of the emptying mechanisms.

1.2.2 Scale Sensor

This sensor measures the level of solids indirectly through the weight of
the hopper plus product assembly; As the weight of the hopper is
known, it is easy to determine the product weight and therefore the
level. The hopper is supported on a loading platform acting on the lever
of a scale or loaded on other pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical
measuring elements, for example a strain gauge and microprocessor.
Of these elements, one of the most used is a strain gauge, which are
strain sensors based on the variation of electrical resistance with
deformation, on a calibrated conductive wire, or on resistors built from
semiconductor tracks. They are also used, combined with springs or
deformable parts, to indirectly detect forces. In short, they are usually
used more than as deformation sensors, but rather as indirect stress
measurement sensors. The system is relatively expensive, particularly
in the case of large hoppers, and can work at high pressures and
temperatures. Its precision depends on the sensor used, and can vary
from approximately ±0.5 to ±1%.

1.2.3 Capacitive sensor

It is similar to the one mentioned in measuring the level of liquids with
the difference that it has more
possibilities of error due to the greater
adhesion that the solid can have on the
capacitive rod. The reading is also
influenced by variations in the density of
the solid. The dipstick is insulated and
 positioned vertically in the tank and is mechanically well secured to
resist falling product and forces generated by internal slippage. The
measurement is limited to materials in granular or powder form that are
good insulators, the maximum operating pressure and temperature can
be 50 bar and 150 °C, and the device must be calibrated for each type
of material. Its precision is approximately ±15 mm.

1.2.4 Ultrasonic Sensor

The ultrasonic level meter consists of an ultrasonic emitter that sends a
horizontal beam to a receiver placed on the other side of the tank. If the
solids level is lower than the beam, the system goes into oscillation by
latching a relay. When the solids intercept the beam, the system stops
oscillating and the relay is de-
energized, acting on an alarm or on
the tank discharge machinery. By
arranging the ultrasound beam in a
vertical direction, the instrument
can act as a continuous indication
of the level by measuring the transit
time of the ultrasonic impulse
between the emitting source, the
surface of the product where it is
reflected and the receiver located in the source itself. As the surface of
most solid products reflect ultrasound to a greater or lesser extent, the
system is suitable for most solids with a lot of dust, high humidity, fumes
or vibrations, and can be used in both opaque and transparent
materials. However, if the surface of the material is not sharp, the
system is susceptible to giving erroneous signals. The use of the
computer solves this problem by storing the ultrasonic profile of the solid
bed and interpreting it to obtain the correct level of the solid, in addition
to providing self-testing features of the measuring instrument. The
ultrasonic level sensor has an accuracy that varies from ± 0.15% to
±1%, can be built explosion-proof and work at temperatures up to 150
°C.

1.2.5 Radar Sensor

The radiation level meter is similar to the instrument used in determining
the level of liquids. It consists of a radioactive
source of gamma rays, located outside and at
the bottom of the tank, which emits its
radiation through the bed of solids and is
captured by an external detector. The degree
of radiation received depends on the thickness
of solids between the source and the receiver.
 The radioactive source 26 and the receiver can also be arranged in a
horizontal plane, in which case the apparatus works as a continuous all-
nothing detector. The instrument can work at high temperatures up to
about 1300 °C, maximum pressures of 130 bar, in hazardous or
corrosive materials, does not require any opening or connection through
the tank and supports pneumatic or electronic control. Its precision is ±
1% and its measurement field is 0.5 for each source, and several can
be used to increase the level measurement interval. One of its
drawbacks is that it is a high-cost system that requires periodic
monitoring from a safety point of view, must be calibrated for each tank,
and cannot be applied to materials affected by radioactivity.

2. Digital Level Sensors

Fixed point level sensors provide a measurement at one or more specified fixed
points. They will be classified into level sensors for liquids and level sensors for
solids.

2.1 Level Sensor for Liquids

2.1.1 Conductive or Resistive Sensor

In conductive liquids, electrodes can be installed at high and low level
points. When the liquid level rises to the upper electrode, an electrical or
electronic relay is energized. This closes an electrical or electronic
circuit as the case may be and a current of approximately 2 mA
circulates through it. It is worth
mentioning that electronic type units
can be used for services in which
explosive vapors can be found on the
liquid, while that the electric type are
not suitable for these environments.
This sensor is used as an alarm or
high and low level control, it uses
electrical relays for liquids with good
conductivity and electronic relays for
liquids with low conductivity. In
addition, the electronic relay has a timer that filters out a wave of the
liquid level or any momentary disturbance. 28 This conductance
activated liquid level sensor is versatile, with no moving parts, its
measurement field is large with the physical limitation of the length of
the electrodes. They are also easy to install, relatively inexpensive and
require minimal maintenance. It is important to highlight that no
adjustments are required, since the levels can be controlled within small
 margins and - within certain limits - are not affected by pressure,
temperature or corrosive liquids. The advantages of these systems are
that the signal can be transmitted anywhere and it is feasible to use
them in pressure vessels without using packing seals or shafts. Two
dual probes are used, consisting of two concentric cylindrical tubes.
When the liquid touches the tubes, it closes the electrical circuit and the
necessary signals are generated. Figure 4.1 presents a system that
detects the maximum and minimum level of the tank. As can be seen,
the system is suitable for specific level measurements, and for materials
with relatively high conductivity.

2.1.2 Capacitance Sensor

These capacitance sensors use glass or plastic covered units and can
be used to detect high or low level
or interface values in both
conductive and non-conductive
liquids. In non-conductive fluids, a
normal electrode is used and the
total capacity is made up of that of
the liquid, that of the upper gas and
those of the upper connections. In
conductive fluids with a minimum
conductivity of 100µΩ/cc, the electrode is usually insulated with Teflon,
intervening the additional capacities between the insulating material and
the electrode in the liquid and gas zone.

2.2 Level Sensors for Solids

2.2.1 Diaphragm Sensor

It consists of a flexible membrane that can come into contact with the
product inside the tank and that contains inside a set of
counterweighted levers that rest on a switch. When the level of the solid
reaches the diaphragm, it forces it by
overcoming the counterweight and acting on
the switch; This, which can be mechanical or
mercury, can trigger an alarm or act
automatically on a conveyor or machinery
associated with the tank. The diaphragm
material can be fabric, rubber, neoprene or
fiberglass. The diaphragm sensor has the
advantage of its low cost, it can be used in
closed tanks subjected to low pressure or
vacuum thanks to a pneumatic line that equalizes pressures on both
 sides of the membrane and works well with materials of different
density. It has the disadvantage of not allowing granular materials larger
than about 80 mm in diameter. It is worth mentioning that its accuracy is
about +/-50 mm.

2.2.2 Suspended Cone Sensor

It consists of a switch mounted inside a dust-tight box, with a rubber cup
from which a rod ending in a cone is suspended. When the solids level
reaches the cone, the switch is energized. The
rubber cup allows flexibility in the position of the
cone thanks to which the device can act as a high
or low level alarm; It is advisable to take care to
mechanically protect the instrument when handling
heavy materials that, when falling from the tank
discharge mouth, could damage it. 31 The sensor
is inexpensive, needs to be protected at low or
intermediate levels, and is used only in open tanks.
Its precision is about 50 mm. Its typical applications are alarm and level
control in coal, grains and limestone.

2.2.3 Flexible Rod Sensor

It consists of a steel rod connected to a brass diaphragm where a switch
is contained. When the solids press even slightly on the rod, the switch
closes and triggers an alarm. The entire unit is hermetically sealed and
can be constructed explosion proof. The device is used as a high level
alarm, being arranged in the upper part of the tank. To prevent simply
dropping the product from causing an unfounded alarm, it has a built-in
delay timer. The sensor is used in open tanks as a high level alarm, has
an accuracy of +/- 25 mm, is used for materials such as coal and can
work up to maximum temperatures of 300 °C.

2.2.4 Rotating Vane Sensor

They consist of a
vertical axis, equipped
with vanes, that rotates continuously at low speed driven by a
synchronous motor. When the
solid product reaches the blades, it
immobilizes them, causing the
motor support and gearbox to
 begin to rotate in the opposite direction. As it rotates, the motor support
acts consecutively on two switches, the first activates the protection
equipment (an alarm) and the second disconnects the electric power
supply to the motor, thereby blocking it. When the product drops in level
and leaves the blades exposed, a spring returns the motor to its initial
position, releasing the two switches. In this way, the motor is excited,
causing the blades to rotate again, and the alarm is disconnected. The
axis of the blades can be flexible or rigid to adapt to the various working
conditions within the silo (fall of product, sliding of the product). These
devices are suitable in open tanks or at low pressure, have an accuracy
of about 25 mm and are used as level sensors for granular materials
and carbon. They can work with materials of very different densities and
there are explosion-proof models.

2.2.5 Microwave Radar Sensor

It consists of a microwave source, located on one side of
the container, and a detector on the opposite side, on the
same horizontal. When the product reaches said horizontal,
the signal stops being received and an alarm is triggered. It
is applied in the detection of low level of abrasive solids.