PART I

Preliminaries

1Introduction to the book

2The emergence of the means of
mass communication
 1
Introduction
to the book

Our object of study

The structure of the book ...............................................................................................15
Themes and issues in mass communication.........................................................17
Form of treatment............................................................................................19
Coverage limitations and perspective ...................................................................20
Different types of theory ......................................................................................22
The sciences of communication and the study of mass communication........................24
Different traditions of analysis: structural, behavioral, and cultural................28
Conclusion
14 Denis McQuail

OUR OBJECT OF STUDY aspects of its content and its form, and a
One of the purposes of this book is to map and evaluate
The expression 'mass communication' was these transformations.
sister-in-law, together with "means of comu- Initially, we need to recognize
mass communication that mass communication, as des-
to describe a new social phenomenon and writing is no longer the only means of co-
a fundamental characteristic of the world communicate with society as a whole (and at a level
modern that was emerging and was being cons- global). They were developed and assumed
built on the foundations of industrialism new technologies that constitute a network
and of popular democracy. It was a time of potential alternative for communication. The co-
migration towards the cities and beyond the borders mass communication, in the sense of a flow
sheets and, in addition, of struggle between the forces xo of large-scale public content and
of transformation and of repression and of con- single-handedly, remains unshakable, but not
flickering between empires and nation-states. The mī- is more realized only by the mass media
mass days (plural form) are the means traditional. She received the complement
organized to communicate in a way creation of new means of communication (prin-
open, at a distance and with many people in mainly to the internet and mobile technology,
a short period of time. These means of and new types of content and flow are trans-
communication was born in the context and in admitted at the same time, differing mainly
amid the conflicts of this transitional period mainly because they are longer, less
and continued to be deeply involved structured, often interactive, well
in the trends and transformations of society as private and individualized.
father and culture, from the way experienced by Whatever changes may be in
each person, as well as by society and the progress, there is no doubt that the means
world-system of communication continue to impose-
The first means of communication many in contemporary society, in the es-
(newspapers, magazines, phonogram, cinema and ra- areas of politics, culture, social life
they developed rapidly to daily and of the economy. In terms of
reaching formats that are still broad- face to politics, they offer an arena of
minds recognized today, with changes debate is a set of channels to make
mainly in terms of scale and di- more known the candidates, the policies,
versification, as well as the inclusion of the tele- the relevant facts and ideas, as well as
vision, in the mid-20th century. Of the same provide a means of advertising and
form, what was considered, seventy years influence on politicians, interest groups and
back or more, as main characteristics - members of governments. In the sphere of cultu-
mass communication channels still do the mass media is, for most of
stands out in our mind: the capacity to people, the main channel of representation
reach the entire population quickly the cultural expression, as well as the princi-
It is basically with the same information. the source of images of social reality and
actions, opinions, and entertainment, the fascination of materials for training and maintenance
universal that exert, the stimulus to espe- of social identity. Everyday social life
fears and anxieties in equal measure, the supposed is greatly shaped by use routines
relationship with sources of power in society of the media and permeated by
impact and the supposedly great influence its content, through the way it is used
of course there are transformations in leisure time, like lifestyles are
roses are continuous in the spectrum of the means influenced, such as the conversations acquired
of communication available and in many remove your topics and if they offer templates of
 Mass communication theories 15

behavior to all contingencies. an explanation of the alternatives of approaches

Gradually, the media has been growing in gem to their studies and society. The di-
economic value, with companies increasingly Differences arise from distinct perspectives
larger and more international dominating about the means of communication, the diver-
the market in the sector is influencing the variety of topics addressed and the different
sports stores, travel, leisure, food ways to define the issues and the problems
and clothing, and interconnected to telecommunications but depending on the values of the observation-
dogs and all economic sectors based You cannot do a simple study.
in information. objective of an object of this type through
For the reasons stated, our focus is on from a single set of methods. There are diffe-
mass communication is not limited to different types of theories, as will be explained
means of communication, including any but later in this chapter, but one theory
aspect of the original process, independent it is basically a general proposition base-
fearful of the technology or network involved, and, there is in observation and logical argumentation,
therefore, all types and processes of co- that states the relationship between the phenomena
communication that is extensive, public, and tec- observed and seeks to explain or predict
only mediated. In this case, the word this relationship as far as possible. The final-
"Public" means not only open to... the main purpose of the theory is to assign meaning
the two receptors and a set recognize to an observed reality and guide the co-
issue of emitters, but also relates let it be the assessment of the evidence. A con-
ask questions of information and culture that discretion (see Chapter 3) is a central term
are of great interest and concern in a theory, which synthesizes an aspect
in a society, not directed at which- important of the problem under study and can
there is no particular individual. to be used to collect and interpret these
an absolute dividing line between what is evidence, requiring careful definition.
the public and what is private, but generally A model is a selective representation,
one can make a broad distinction. This in verbal or schematic form, of some
the book was conceived to contribute to the aspect of the dynamic process of communi-
exam and the public understanding of the comu- mass action. It can also describe
mass communication in all its forms and the temporal and spatial relationship between them
to present an overview of ideas and mints in a process.
from the research, guided by the themes and questions Apart from 'Theories' it is treated separately.
are summarized below. mind of "society" and "culture", although
this separation is artificial, since one does not
can exist without the other. However, due to
THE STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK In this context, the term 'society' mainly refers to
mainly to the social relations of all
The contents are divided into twenty chapters. types, ranging from those of power and authority (go-
results, grouped into eight titles. The first (winter) up to friendships and family relationships,
substantial part, "Theories" (II), presents the as well as all the material aspects of the
foundation for the most basic ideas and life. 'Culture' encompasses ideas, beliefs,
also more general about communication of identity, symbolic expression of all the
mass, with special reference to the many types, including language, art, information
relationships that exist between the media and life action and entertainment, in addition to customs and
social and cultural. It begins with a brief rituals.
historical review of the emergence of media There are two other components. One
mass communication and continues with it relates to the norms and values that
16 Denis McQuail

it applies to the conduct of organizations of from the media, with particular reference to the
media. In this case, the theory deals with what the principles and standards of your performance.
media should be doing or is not doing What standards should be applied, such as
do, instead of simply examining the it is possible to evaluate media performance and
reasons why she does what she does. How is it In what ways can the media be responsible?
As expected, there are differing opinions about bilizada?
the subject, mainly due to the strong In third place, this section examines
claims that the media makes for freedom the growing phenomenon of global media and the
regarding regulation and control, in
name of freedoms of expression and artistic origins in both new technologies of pro-
and of the strong public feelings that computerized deduction and transmission as much as
also exist in relation to their responsibilities to the greater trends of globalization of
lities. society.
Secondly, this part deals with the The section titled 'Organizations' (IV)
consequences that changes in means it deals with the locus of media production, whether
of communication have for the theory, princi- a company or a department within
mainly because of the emergence of no- from a larger company, and addresses the nume-
interactive media, such as the internet, that roses influences that define the production.
are "mass communication media", in Among them are the pressures and demands
sense of your availability, but not outside the limits of the organization, the exi-
are really involved in 'communica- agencies of routine 'mass production'
mass action of news and culture and personal trends
mind. The problem faced in this case and professionals of the 'communicators of
and whether the 'new media' require a theory mass". There are several theories and models
new and different from that which applies to that seek to explain regularities of
mass communication and if it is found reserved in the internal selection process and
is in decline. formation of 'content' before it is
The section titled "Structures" (III) broadcasted.
deals with three main themes. First- The section about 'Content' (V) is divi-
mind, of the general media system and of in two chapters, the first of which
the way she usually organizes herself mainly deals with approaches and methods
at the national level. The central concept is of two for content analysis. Beyond the
a "media" institution, applying to simple description of media production
in the media, as a branch agreement with labels applied internally
of the economy subject to economic laws and it's not easy at all to describe the
as a social institution that meets the needs of content in a more clarifying way
societies of society and is subject to some there is no agreement on where
more requirements of the law and regulation, the "true meaning" is located - if between
oriented, to some extent, by policies the producers, the receivers or in the very
public. The media is unusual for being a text of the 'message'. Secondly, the
business "invested with public interest" and, theory and evidence come together to explain
still, for the most part, free from like some of the regularities observed
any positive obligation. The second in the content, with special reference to the gen-
the topic addressed is an investigation of- black of the news.
cut about normative expectations In the next part, "Audiences" (VI),
in relation to the media by the public the word "public" refers to all the di-
common people, of governments and of the public joint verses of readers, listeners and
 Mass communication theories 17

viewers who receive content from THEMES AND ISSUES IN

media or those who are the target of your broadcasts.
Without an audience, there would be no communication.
MASS COMMUNICATION
mass action, and it plays a dynamic role The contents of the book are permeated by
little in the formation of flow and effects of a number of recurring general themes in
media. Once again, the audience analysis discussions about social origins, the im-
involves numerous tasks and can be actual importance and the effects of communication, whether
given with many different purposes. It is on a personal level or that of an entire society
much more than 'measuring' the audience At this moment, we can identify the
in the name of the media industry and has main themes as follows:
I guide several paths theoretically dis-
tintos. The theory of the public deals not only with s Time. Communication takes place in time-
"why" of media use, but also of later; when it happens and how long
its related determinants in life only- there are relevant issues. The techno-
cultural. The "use" of the media has become communication lodge has increased
so intertwined with other activities that constantly the speed at which
he can no longer be treated in isolation one can transmit a given volume
in relation to other factors of our expe- from one point to another.
resilience. A fundamental question to be It also stores information for
responded is if the means of communication the recovery at a post-
they evolved way beyond the stage of communication interior in historical time. The content
mass action is a concept based from mass media, in particular, being-
in the image of a passive receiver still as a memory reserve for a
it is appropriate. society and for groups within it, and
The questions about the 'Effects' of the mi- can be recovered or lost select-
day (Part VII) is at the beginning and in the conclusion- again.
They are from the book, as well as at the center of the pre- s Place. Communication is produced in
social and cultural occupations about the media a certain place and reflects character
of mass. They continue to generate difference- characteristics of that context. It serves to
these theories and many divergences. Descr- define a place for its inhabitants and
alternative ways to get there to establish an identity. Co-
to evaluate the effects. They explain- necta places, reducing the distance
-there are differences in the type of effect, main- that separates individuals, countries, and cultures.
mind that between the intended effect and It is said that the main trends in
the involuntary, and between the short-term impact mass communication has an effect
deadline about individuals and the influence of of delocalization, or establish a
long term in culture and society. The new global "place" where people re-
main areas of theory and research on they know increasingly as family.
media effects still tend to con- s Power. Social relations are structure-
to focus, on one hand, on the social effects and the moves are driven by power, where the von-
potentially harmful cultural part of one is imposed on the other, it-
most popular forms of content, prin- legitimately or not, or by influence,
mainly those that involve representation where the desires of the other are sought
sex and violence actions, and, on the other hand, or followed. Communication, as such,
on the influence of the media on opinion and does not have coercive power, but is a
the knowledge of the public. The chapters invariant component and a free medium
are organized according to these themes. hot exercise of power, in a way
18 Denis McQuail

effective or not. Despite the voluntary nature of result is a reflection of social forces
attention to communication means previous and deeper?
mass action, the issue of its power s Mediation. As an alternative to the idea
about the audiences is never far away. of cause and effect, we can consider
s Social reality. The assumption behind it. that the means of communication propose
of a large part of the theory of com- they mention occasions, connections, channels, are-
the mass action is that we inhabit nas and platforms for them to circulate
a “real” world of circumstances information and ideas. Through the mi-
materials and events that can be co- day, senses are formed, and the forces
known. The media provides us with reports social and cultural operate freely
the reflections of this reality, with diffe- according to different logics and without
rents degrees of precision, integrity or predictable result. The process of me-
reliability. The notion of 'truth' day inevitably influences or al-
it is usually applied as a standard your received senses exist and there is a
to the content of news and fiction, by growing tendency to adapt to the 'reali-
more difficult to define and evaluate. "given" to the requirements for presentation of
s Meaning. Related theme that arises media, and not the other way around.
continuously and relates to the inter- s Identity. Common feeling of per-
interpretation of the 'message', or of the con- adherence to a culture, a community-
content, of the means of communication of dade, a place or a grouping
mass. Most of the theories about the social; involves many factors, including-
mass communication media of- of nationality, language, work, et-
It depends on making some assumptions niceness, religion, belief, lifestyle,
actions on the meaning of what etc. The mass media
they transmit, whether seen from the point are associated with many different aspects
from the perspective of the sender, the receiver or the training, maintenance, and dis-
neutral observer. As observed solution of the identity, being able to drive
above, there is not a single source of sen- to reflect social change and lead to more
time or way to say precisely or less integration.
what is meant, what it provides Cultural difference. In almost all the
an infinite potential for questioning situations, the study of related issues
ment and uncertainty. nothing in the media reminds us how much the
s Causality and determinism. It is of the nature- mass communication work and the
referred to the theory trying to solve issues of media institutions, despite the sowing-
cause and effect, either proposing an expli- apparent similarities around the world,
general hunting that connects observations, be are affected by cultural differences
directing the investigation towards de- at the level of individual, subgroup, in-
to determine if one factor caused the other. action, etc. The production and use of means
Issues related to the cause do not arise communication are cultural practices
only about the consequences of that resist universal trends
messages from the media to individuals, facilitators of technology and content
but also about historical issues mass produced.
from the very emergence of institutions s Governance. All the means by which
media actions and the reasons why the various media are regulated and
they have certain typical characteristics of controlled by laws, norms, customs
content and appeal. The media has effects and codes, as well as by the management of
in society or is it itself just another market. There is a continuous evolution
 Mass communication theories 19

on these subjects in response to changes s CRIME STATISTICS ON PORNOGRAPHY

challenges in technology and society. fia, violence and deviations of behavior
mentor.
When we talk about the issues that... s 2ELA½áO WITH ORDER AND DISORDER SO-
discussed in the book, we are referring to snow
diving into more specific themes that are pro- s 0ROMO½áO OF A SOCIETY OF INFOR-
problematic or controversial in the public arena. mação.
They relate to issues based on the s 5S AND QUALITY OF LEISURE TIME
what public opinion often becomes SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EQUALITY
but, on which one can expect that the
governments have prevention policies or Normative issues
improvement, or in which the means themselves s FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
communication may have some responsibility s SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EQUALITY CLASS
ability. gender, ethnicity, and sexuality.
Not all topics are problematic Ethics and professionalism of the M
not in a negative sense, but involve questions day.
of current and future trends that are significant s Responsibility and Accountability
captives, for better or for worse. None social media.
the list of topics will be complete, but the titles
come to mind as being important, the Economic concerns
most of them already known to the reader. They are- s RAW OF CONCENTRATION
comes not only as anticipation of the content CONTENT MARKETING
from the book, but to remember the importance of s GLOBAL IMPERIALISM AND DEPENDENCE
the media theme in society and the potential re-
relevance of the theory for the manipulation of these
questions. The themes are divided according to FORM OF TREATMENT
with the land they occupy.
The book was written in the form of a narrative con-
Relations with politics and the State tínua, following a certain logic.
POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS AND PROPAGANDA It starts with a brief history of the media,
CITIZEN PARTICIPATION AND DEMOCRACY followed by an overview of the main
s APPEAL OF THE MEDIA REGARDING THEconcepts WAR AND and theories
TO that address the relationship
terrorism. between mass communication and society
s INFORMALITY ABOUT THE FORMULATION and
OF THE thePOLITICS
culture. Subsequently, the sequence of
external ca. contents follow a line from the "source"
s SERVING OR RESISTING POWER SOURCES in the form of communication organizations
of mass, going through the content that they
Cultural issues they produce and disseminate, until reception by
s CONTENT GLOBALIZATION AND mUXO public and a wide range of possible effects
s REMOVE THE QUALITY OF LIFE AND THE you see,
PRO- what seems to suggest beforehand a
cultural deduction. vision on how we should approach the as-
s FACTS ABOUT CULTURAL IDENTITY AND summary,
SO- although that is not the intention.
cial. Due to the broad nature of pro-
the problems described above and the complexity
Social concerns from many of them, it is only possible to present
very brief descriptions. Each chapter
s THE ELNI OF REALITY AND MEDIATION
social experience. starts with an introduction that presents
20 Denis McQuail

an overview of the main topics to be you determinist. In short, this description of

addressed. Within the chapters, the subject the theory has an inevitable "Western" bias.
the book is divided into sections with subtitles To a large extent, your theoretical body of-
own. The topics are not defined by western source of rivers, especially from
agreement with newly described themes and subjects Europe and North America and the places that
however, they reflect the variable focus of the theory they write in English, and the research
and from the research that was conducted to test related to testing these ideas are derived from
the different theories. In general, the reader will mainly from these same places. This
find a definition of relevant concepts does not mean that they are not valid for or-
advantages, an explanation of the theme, a brief trans configurations, and not that the conclusions
relevant research evidence review they are provisional and it may be necessary to
and a general assessment of the controversial issues to yield and test other ideas.
case. Each chapter ends with a re- The nature of the relationship between media and so-
my brief on what was concluded. The points
the main ones are summarized in 'frames' in by and place. As noted above, this book
text, to provide a focus and help deals largely with the mass media
in the later memory. and mass communication in the modern era
Developed nation-states, main-
mind in democracies based on elections with
LIMITATIONS OF free market economies (or mixed), which
COVERAGE AND PERSPECTIVE are integrated into a broader set
of internal economic and political relations
Although the book is comprehensive in its co- interaction channels, and also of dominion
opening and is intended to have an application to the end nation or conflict. It is more likely that the
mass communication phenomenon in general, means of communication are experienced in
and not to any particular country, the way- different ways in societies with character-
the feasibility of this objective is limited in several "non-Western" characteristics, mainly
aspects. First of all, the author has less individualistic and of a more
a place, a nationality and a way- community-oriented, less secular and more religious
cultural actions that shape your knowledge sas. There are other traditions of theory and practice.
your experience and your perspectives. There is media tic, even if media theory
a lot of room for subjective judgment and it is Western has become part of the project
impossible to avoid it, even when one tries hegemonic of global media. The distinctions
be objective. Secondly, the phenomenon it's not just a matter of greater or
no, it is not 'mass communication' itself. lower economic development, since
it is independent of the cultural context in involve deep cultural differences and
what is observed, despite the similarities a long historical experience. The problem-
in technology and from trends to the uniform but it is deeper than an inevitable
given the forms of organization and conduct authorial ethnocentrism element, a
from the media, as well as content. Although since it also resides in the main tradition
some stories of the media institution social science that has its roots in the pen-
they portray it as an 'invention' Western knowledge. The nature of alternatives
"Western" that was spread as part of to the social sciences offered by the studies
a process of 'modernization' of the Es- cultural aspects are not, in other respects, less
United States and Europe to the rest of the western.
world, there are alternative stories and the diffusion Although the goal is to present the
it is far from being a one-way process the most 'objective' possible description of the theory
 Mass communication theories 21

and the evidence, the study of communication the use of mass communication in a way
the mass cannot fail to address issues more effective (Windahl and Signitzer, 2007). In
values and political conflict and so- meanwhile, two can also be distinguished
All societies have tensions and conflicts. other axes of theoretical variation.
latent or explicit traditions that many One of these separates approaches 'centra-
sometimes extend to the international arena. the ones in the media" of the "society-centered"
The means of communication are inevitable. (or "sociocentric"). The first type attri-
deeply involved in these areas against gives much more autonomy and influence to
verses, as producers and disseminators communication and focuses on the sphere of activ-
of meaning about events and contexts life of the media itself. The central theories-
of social life, whether private or public. they see mass media as
From these observations, it is concluded that there is no a fundamental engine in the transformation
you can expect that the study of communication social, driven by development
of mass provide theoretically information irresistible communication technology.
neutral, scientifically verified about They also pay much more attention to
the "effects" or the meaning of something that is specific media content and the subsequent
an extremely set of processes potential implications of the different types of mí-
complex and intersubjective. By the same day (printed, audiovisual, interactive, etc.) A
reasons, it is often difficult to formulate teo- sociocentric theory considers the media primarily
rias on mass communication of forms principally as a reflection of political forces
that are open to empirical testing. media and economic. Media theory is a
Predictably, the field of theory of special application of social theory more am-
media is also characterized by perspective- PLA (Golding and Murdock, 1978). Let it be the socie-
very divergent views. Sometimes, one can Whether driven by the media or not, certainly
see the difference in approach between tenders it is true that the communication theory of
left-wing parties (progressive or liberal) and mass, in itself, is driven like this, tending-
of the right (conservative). The left theory- to respond to each major change of
for instance, is critical regarding the technology and media structure.
power exercised by means of communication The second dividing line, horizontal,
action in the hands of the State or large is situated among those theorists whose interest
global corporations, while the theorists (and conviction) resides within the realm of culture and
conservatives point to the 'liberal bias' the ideas and those who emphasize strengths and
"ral" of the press or the damages caused material factors. This division corresponds,
through the media to traditional values. approximately, to certain other dimen-
There was also a difference between humanistic and scientific, quantitative and
a critical approach to theory and another, qualitative, and subjective and objective. Although
more applied, which does not correspond to ne- reflect, in part, the need for some
necessarily to the political axis. Lazarsfeld division of labor in a vast territory
(1941) refers to this as an orientation- and the multidisciplinary nature of the study of
critical action and another administrative. The theory media, these differences also develop-
criticism seeks to expose the problems and failures often sees conflicting ideas and
underlying media practices and relate contradictory about how to ask questions,
-in a comprehensive way to the issues conduct research and present explanations.
social, guided by certain values. The These two alternatives are independent.
applied theory aims to take advantage between them and, together, they identify four diffe-
an understanding of the processes of comu- new perspectives in the media and in society
communication to solve practical problems (Figure 1.1).
22 Denis McQuail

Media-centric

Media-culturalist Media-materialist

Culturalista Materialist

Socioculturalist Social-materialist

Centered on society

Figure 1.1Dimensions and types of media theory. Four main approaches can be identified.
classified according to two dimensions: media-centric and society-centered; and culturalist and
materialist.

The four types of perspective can 4. Social-materialist perspective. This

to be summarized as follows: the approach has generally been re-
related to a critical view on
1. Media-culturalist perspective. This property and control of the means of
approach takes the perspective of the communication, which, ultimately,
member of the audience regarding are considered as what forms the
some genre of media or example dominant ideology transmitted or
specific to media culture (e.g., endorsed by the media.
reality shows on social networks) and explores
the subjective sense of experience in Although it is still possible to discern...
a certain context. the differences in approach in the structure
2. Media-materialist approach. The pes-in the field of research, there has been a
Quests in this tradition emphasize form- tendency towards convergence among the different
media content creation and, therefore, schools. Even so, the various subjects and
of the potential effects, by the nature of the approaches presented involve differences
means in relation to technology and the rela- important aspects of philosophy and methodology
social actions of reception and production that they cannot simply be ignored.
This implies. It also assigns influence.
to the specific contexts and dynamics of
organization or production. DIFFERENT
3. Sociocultural perspective. This vi- TYPES OF THEORY
are essentially subordinate to the media
and the media experience to stronger forces If the theory is understood not only as a
deeper and more powerful that affect system of propositions similar to laws,
the society and the individuals. The issues but like any systematic set
social and cultural also predominate of ideas that can help to understand a
minam on political issues and phenomenon, to guide action or to predict a
economic. As a consequence, it is possible to distinguish
 Mass communication theories 23

at least five types of theories that are opportunities for cultural approaches and
relevant to mass communication: combined scientific and the many problems
social-scientific, cultural, normative, operative Media mathematics demands both.
rational and everyday. A third type of theory can be
The social-scientific theory makes assertions described as normative, since it is
general about nature, its functioning and worried about examining or prescribing the
the effects of mass communication, with how the media should operate so that
based on systematic and objective observation of certain social values are observed or
media and other relevant sources, which, by achieved. Such theory generally results in
your turn, they can be tested and validated of social philosophy or of ideology more
or rejected by similar methods. Exis- broad of a given society. This type of
you currently have a large body of this type of theory is important because it fulfills a role
theory and it provides a large part of the content in the formation and legitimization of institutions
of this book, but it is organized in a way media actions and exerts an influence on
generic, not very clearly formulated considerable about the expectations that part of
not very coherent. It also covers a ... other social bodies and the publics of the pro-
very broad spectrum, from general issues men have in relation to her. The desire
from society to detailed aspects of to apply social performance standards and
issuance and reception of individual information cultural has encouraged a great quantity
It also derives from different disciplines, quantity of research on mass media. The
mainly sociology, psychology and the normative theories of a society about
politics. Some "scientific" theories address your own media is usually hidden
of understanding what is happening, translated into laws, regulations, policies
others, from the development of a critique of media, codes of ethics and in substance
and others, still, of practical applications to pro- of public debate. Although it is not, in itself,
public information or persuasion processes. "objective", the normative theory of the media can
Cultural theory is of a very to be studied by the 'objective' methods of
more diversified. In some aspects, it is social sciences (McQuail, 1992).
evaluative, seeking to differentiate artifacts A fourth type of knowledge
cultural according to some criteria of about the media can be better described
quality. Sometimes, however, your objec- as an operational theory, once it
tivo is almost the opposite, seeking to question refers to practical ideas generated and applied
the hierarchical classification as being ir- by media professionals in conducting
relevant to the true meaning of your own work. In most of the
culture. organizational and professional contexts,
Different spheres of cultural production there are similar organisms of
accumulated practical knowledge. In this case
they generated their body of cultural theory, to the
sometimes in aesthetic or ethical lines, sometimes from the media, the operational theory serves to
with a social-critical purpose. This is orient solutions to fundamental tasks,
applies to cinema, literature, television, including the way of selecting news,
to the plastic arts and to many other forms please the public, formulate advertising
of media. Although cultural theory demands effective, to stay within the limits of what
clear discussion and formulation, coherence society allows and relates in a way
and constancy, its main component is it is effective to the sources and to society. In some
frequently imaginative and ideational, points, one can override the normative theory
and resists the demand for testing or to the va- for example, in matters of journalistic ethics
handling through observation. However, there is journalism and codes of practice.
24 Denis McQuail

This knowledge deserves the name by media theorists or legislators, nor

of theory because it usually has a pattern and by media producers themselves, but they arise
persistence, even though it is rarely co- from the experience and practices of the audiences of
deified, and it is influential in relation to the com- media over time. The history of the m-
portamento. It emerges in the study of how day and its future perspectives depend
sneakers and their organizations (e.g., Elliott, but of this very uncertain branch of theory of
1972; Tuchman, 1978; Tunstall, 1993). Katz than anything else.
(1977) compared the role of the researcher
regarding the production of media to the te-
musical historian or philosopher of science, who THE SCIENCES OF
they can see regularities of COMMUNICATION
what can a musician or a scientist
still not being aware.
AND THE STUDY OF
Finally, there is the everyday or practical theory of MASS COMMUNICATION
common sense about media use,
giving in to the knowledge that all of us Mass communication is one among many
we have from our own experience these topics of the social sciences and only one
with the means of communication, that we part of a broad field of research
allows one to understand what is happening about human communication. Under the name
I give, to fit a media into our lives. of "scientific communication", the field was
the daily ones, understand how it is intended defined by Berger and Chaffee (1987, p. 17)
that your content be 'read', as well as as a science that "seeks to understand the
the way we would like to read it, to know production, the transformation and the effects of
what are the differences between media and genressymbol and sign systems through
media genres and much more. This "theory" testable theories, containing generalizations
it underpins the ability to make choices legitimate, which explain the phenomena as-
coherent, develop patterns of preference associated with production, processing and effects
Hi, building lifestyles and identities Although it has been presented as
as media consumers. It also the definition 'dominant', which would apply to
supports the ability to make judgments most of the research in communication,
critics. All of this, in turn, forms what In fact, this perspective is very biased towards
the means of communication really offer a model of investigation: the quan- study
with their audience and establishes directions and qualitative of communicative behavior and
limits to the influence of the media. its causes and effects. It is especially inad-
This theory, for example, allows us frame to deal with the nature of 'siste-
distinguish between 'reality' and 'fiction', 'read in the of symbols and meaning, the process
between the lines or see through the objectives and by which meaning is attributed and received
persuasive techniques of advertising and others in various contexts of social and cultural life
types of campaigns, and resist many of the natural. The main alternative approaches
potentially harmful impulses that the the study of mass communication is
supposedly pro-communication means described in the conclusion of this chapter.
vocam. The functioning of the theory of sen- Difficulties have also arisen.
so common can be seen in the standards for to define the field in light of evolution
use of communication media that many of technology, which blurred the boundaries
people recognize and follow (see Chapter between public and private communication and between
16). The social definitions that the means of co- mass and interpersonal communication. Today,
communication acquired are not established it is impossible to find any definition
 Mass communication theories 25

unique consensus of a "science of comu- At each descending level of the pyramid

communication, for a series of circumscribed reasons measure, there is a growing number of
indicated
tanciais, but, fundamentally, because cases to be found, and each level presents
there has never been a consensual definition of has its own set of problems for
central concept of 'communication'. The term research and theorization. In a society
it can refer to very diverse things, prin- modern and integrated, there will often be
mainly: the act or process of transmission a large public communications network,
they are of information, to give or assume meaning, normally depending on the media of but-
share information, ideas, impress- that can reach and involve everyone
sessions or emotions, the reception process, citizens at different levels, although the pro-
perception and response, the effort of influence- priority media system also is, many
Hi, any form of interaction. To with- times, fragmented according to factors
apply even more, communication can be regional and others, social or demographic.
intentional or unintentional and the variety The means of communication of but-
The potential of channels and content is unlimited. the only possible basis for a
Furthermore, no "science of co- effective communication network that extends
"communication" can be independent and self- for an entire society. There are already techno-
sufficient, considering the origins of alternative loggias (other than the means of
study of communication in many disci- mass communication) to support re-
plinas and the broad nature of the issues of society as a whole
that arise, including economic issues (mainly the physical transport network,
my, law, politics and ethics, as well as of the telecommunications infrastructure and the
culture. postal system), but these generally do not
The study of communication must be they possess the social elements that encompass
interdisciplinary and should adopt approaches and the whole society or the public roles of the
various methods (see McQuail, 2003b). mass communication. In the past (and in
A less problematic way of some places, even today), public networks
to situate the theme of mass communication covering the whole society was to propose-
in a broad field of research in co- ordained by the Church, by the State or by
communication is doing it according to the different political organizations, based on beliefs
levels of social organization in which this shared and, generally, in a ca-
communication occurs. According to this hierarchical contact chain, going from the "top"
according to criteria, mass communication can be at "base" and using various means of
considered as one of the several processes communication, from formal publications
of communication at the level of the whole society even personal contacts.
dad, at the height of a pira distribution- In unusual circumstances, they may-
middle of other communication networks of to activate alternative communication networks
agreement with this criterion (Figure 1.2). A to replace mass media; for example-
communication network is any set plo, in the case of natural disaster, accident
of points (people or places) interconnected serious or outbreak of a war or another
data that allows transmission and exchange emergency. In the past, communication
of information between them. In its largest word of mouth was the only possibility,
part, mass communication is a network while today, cell phones and
that connects many receivers to a source, the internet can be used for
while new media technologies nor- it is effective for interconnecting a large
they poorly provide interactive connections population. In fact, the original reason
of various types. for the conception of the internet in the United States
26 Denis McQuail

United, in the 1970s, it was precisely information (e.g., attention, perception, for-
provide a communication system attitude formation, understanding, memory
alternative in the event of a nuclear attack it is learning), attribution of meaning and
clear. possible effects (e.g., on knowledge,
At a level lower than that of the entire so- opinion, self-identity, and attitude.
In society, there are several different types of networks. This apparently pure pattern has
of communication. One of these types reproduces has been complicated by 'globalization' growth
the social relationships that occur in the center of social life, in which communication-
society as a whole at the regional level, mass production has played a role in-
large urban centers or smaller cities important. There is an even higher 'level' of
it can have its own media system communication and exchange to consider,
(local press, radio, etc.). Another type is that crosses and even ignores the borders
represented by the firm, organization pro- national, in relation to a growing range
professional, company or profession, that can center of activities (economic, political,
not having a single place, but it is usually of advertising, scientific, sports, of
very integrated into its own front- entertainment, etc). Organizations and
organizational layers, within which institutions are less confined to
there is a great flow of communication. national borders and the individuals
A third type is one that represents the they can meet the needs of
"institution" - for example, government, edu- communication outside of your own society
education, justice, religion or social security. of and its immediate social environments. The
The activities of a social institution are correspondence, previously strong, in-
always different and also need three personal social interaction patterns
correlation and a lot of communication, following in the shared space and time, by
routes and standardized forms. The networks en- one side, and communication systems, for
in this case are limited to reaching another, was very weakened, and our op-
certain limited ends (e.g., education, ma- cultural and informative actions have become
maintenance of order, circulation of information much broader.
economic action, etc.) and are not open to This is one reason why it was proposed
participation of all. the idea of a "networked society" emerges
Below this level, there is even more and people (see Castells, 1996; van Dijk, 1999; and the
but various types of communication networks Chapter 6 of this book). These developments-
action, based on some characteristic they can also mean that the networks
common of everyday life: an environment increasingly less limited to any 'level-
(like a neighborhood), an interest (like the "of the society, as implied in the Figure
music), a necessity (like the cui- 1.2. New hybrid communication means
given to small children) or a ati- (public and private) allow for the formation
life (like sports). At this level, the of communication networks with more ease-
main issues concern vín- lidity, without the usual "cement" of space
ass and identity, cooperation and training shared or personal knowledge
of norms. Not intra-group (family, for example) In the past, it was possible to associate ap-
and at the interpersonal level, there is usually approximately a communication technology
paid attention to forms of conversation specific action to a certain 'level'
and patterns of interaction, influence and affiliation of the social organization, as described,
Action (degrees of connection) and control norm- with the television located at the highest level
Here. At the intrapersonal level, the research in the press and radio at the regional level
communication addresses the processing of or city, internal systems, phone and
 Mass communication theories 27

Few cases

Networks in
level of
society
(e.g., communication
of mass)
Level of Institutional/organizational
process of (e.g., system
communication politician or company
Intergroup or association
(e.g., local community)
Intracompany
(e.g., couple, pair)
Intrapersonal
(e.g., process information)

Many cases

Figure 1.2The pyramid of communication networks: mass communication is one among the various
processes of social communication.

institutional level electronic mail, and a range of flow patterns. For now, con-
and so on. The advances in technology everything, there are not many changes in the function
of communication and its widespread adoption communicative, at the level of the whole society
make it no longer possible. of what was fulfilled by the mass media
The internet, for example, currently serves "traditional" formed by newspapers, television
support for communication in practically the radio, although its near monopoly of
all levels and also supports chains public communication is increasingly
the networks that connect the social "top" to in question.
base, and it is vertical (in both directions) Despite the increasing complexity of
or diagonal, and not just horizontal. For network society, each level indicates a
for example, a policy page can provide series of similar questions for the theo-
access to leaders and political elites, as well as the area and research in communication. They are
to the citizens at the base, allowing for a broad presented in Table 1.1.

1.1
s
Questions for theory and research
about networks and communication processes
1UEM IS LINKED TO WHO IN A CERTAIN NETWORK AND FOR WHAT PURPOSE
s 1UAIS I AM THE GODFATHER AND THE RIGHT OF mUXO
s #OMO HAPPENS COMMUNICATION CHANNELS LANGUAGES CODES
1UE TYPES OF CONTENT ARE OBSERVED
s 1UAIS ARE THE RESULTS OF COMMUNICATION INTENTIONAL OR NOT?
28 Denis McQuail

DIFFERENT TRADITIONS and of media systems on the standards

OF ANALYSIS: STRUCTURAL, of news and entertainment. For example,
media commercial systems tend to
BEHAVIORAL AND to focus more on entertainment
CULTURES about the media that provides public services
provides relatively more information and
Although the issues raised in dife- traditional culture. Regarding issues
rental levels are similar in terms on the use and effects of media, the approach in-
very general, in practice, are involved fatigue the consequences of communication of
many different concepts and reality mass for other social institutions. This
the communication differs a lot from one level includes, for example, the influence of the market-
to another (e.g., a conversation between two political issues regarding the conduct of elections
family members occur according to or the role of news management and re-
different "rules" from those that govern the trans- public relations in government policies. The
news mission to a large audience, a fundamental dynamics of phenomena of
question and answer program on television media are situated in the exercise of power,
vision or a chain of command in a in the economy and in the application of technology
professional organization). For this reason, socially organized. The approach es-
among others, any type of 'communication- Structural for media analysis is more linked-
"scientific action" must be built ne- adapt to management needs and also to
necessarily from various bodies of media policy formation.
theory and evidence, coming from various The behavioral approach has
traditional "disciplines" (mainly its main roots in psychology and in
sociology and psychology in their pri- social psychology, but also has a
(mórdios, but now also the economy, the) sociological variant. In general, the main
history and literary and film studies, the object of interest is human behavior
among others). individual hand, mainly in terms of
In this sense, the more pro- related to choosing, processing and res-
Durable foundations separate the community ponder the communication messages. The
interpersonal communication of the mass, the preo- the use of mass media is generally addressed
cultural occupations of behaviors as a form of rational action and moti-
the institutional and historical perspectives says, which has a certain function or
that are cultural or behavioral. use for the individual and also some
In simple terms, there are basically three objective consequences. The approaches
different main approaches: the structure- psychological methods tend more to use me-
ral, the behavioral and the cultural. two experimental research based on
The structural approach derives from principles- individual subjects. The sociological variant
mainly from sociology, but includes perspectives- focus on the behavior of the members of
branches originating from history, politics, lawsocially defined and privileged populations
and the economy. Its starting point is 'socio- the multivariate analysis of data represents
"central" instead of "media-centric" (like survey results conducted under conditions
shown in Figure 1.1), and its main natural. Individuals are classified as
the object of attention will probably be the agreement with relevant position variables,
media systems and organizations and their re- social disposition and behavior, and these
relationship with society in general. When it arises- variables can be manipulated statistically
rem issues of media content, the focus clearly. In the study of organizations, cos-
likely will be in the effect of the social structure it is advisable to adopt participant observation.
 Mass communication theories 29

This approach is mainly found within which the humanistic study is situated
mind in the study of persuasion, campaigns and the socio-scientific communication of mas-
and propaganda. Communication is understood It must be clear that the limits around
mainly in the sense of transmission. of various themes are not clearly established
The cultural approach has its roots readjusted, changing according to the trans-
in the human sciences, in anthropology and in formations in technology and society.
linguistics. Although very broad in po- Notwithstanding, there is a community of
tentational, has been applied mainly academic knowledge that shares
to questions of meaning and language, to the mi- a set of concerns, concepts and
news from certain social contexts and analysis tools that will be explored
cultural experiences. The study of media in the following chapters.
is part of a broad field of studies
cultural. It is more likely to be 'centra-
in the media" (although not exclusively- READINGS
sensitive to the differences between the means of
communication and the contexts of the means of COMPLEMENTARY
transmission and reception, more interested
in the deep understanding of content Devereux, E. (2007) Media Studies: Key Issues and
and specific situations than in general Debates. London: Sage. Comprehensive set of
original chapters on topics in this field, with
ization. Their methods favor analysis
supplementary teaching materials and references.
qualitative and in-depth examination of sig practices
social and human significance, and the analysis and Grossberg, L., Wartella, E. and Whitney, D. C. (1998)
Media Making. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
interpretation of "texts". Cultural approach-
broad outline of the field of mass media studies
culturally is based on a much wider range
from different perspectives – sociological,
wide range of theories, including feminist ones, cultural and media industry.
philosophical, semiotic, of cinema, psycho- McQuail, D. (ed.) (2002) Reader in Mass Communication
political and literary. Cation Theory. London: Sage. Set of readings
Normally, there is no direct application fundamental, classical and modern, organized in
it is for the cultural approach, although it sections that correspond to the main divisions of this
can provide many important insights book and chosen to support the same range of
for media producers and planners. contents of this edition.
It helps to better understand the audience Silverstone, R. (1999) Why Study the Media? *
and explain success and failure in a way that London: Sage. Concise personal enunciation and with
litativa. clear arguments about the importance of the media in
society. It remains valid, even with the changes-
in the last decade.
CONCLUSION
This chapter aimed to present a br- * N. de R.T.: Published in Brazil as Why
and outline of the general field of research study the media? (Loyola publisher).