Development

Data Manipulation
It is done to obtain useful information from the data previously entered into the system. The
data manipulation encompasses two types of operations:
Operations to eliminate errors and update current datasets.
2. Operations that use analytical techniques to answer questions
specifics formulated by the user.
The manipulation process can range from a simple position of two or more maps,
up to a complex extraction of disparate information elements from a wide variety
of sources.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), along with Computer-Aided Design
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) constitutes an integral part of the work. This includes the
visual representation of data and integration of data management solutions.
Data Creation
Modern GIS technologies work with digital information, for which there are
various methods used in the creation of digital data. The most used method is the
digitalization, where from a printed map or information taken in the field
transfer to a digital medium by using a Computer-Aided Design program
Computer (DAOo CAD) with geo-referencing capabilities.
Given the wide availability of ortho-rectified images (both satellite and
airlines), digitization through this means is becoming the main source of
extraction of geographic data. This form of digitization involves the search for data
geographic directly on aerial images instead of the traditional method of the
localization of geographic shapes on a digitization board.
Data Representation
SIG data represent real-world objects (roads, land use,
altitudes). Real-world objects can be divided into two abstractions: objects
discrete (a house) and continuous (amount of rainfall, an elevation). There are two
ways to store data in a GIS: raster and vector.
 Raster
A type of raster data is essentially any type of digital image represented in
Grids. The raster or grid model of GIS focuses on the properties of space more
that in the accuracy of the location. It divides the space into regular cells where each one
of them represents a unique value.
Vectorial
In a GIS, geographic features are often expressed as vectors,
maintaining the geometric characteristics of the figures.
In vector data, the interest in representations focuses on precision of
localization of geographic elements in space and where the phenomena to
to represent discrete sound, that is, with defined limits. Each of these geometries is
linked to a row in a database that describes its attributes. For example, a base
Data that describes the lakes may contain information about their bathymetry, the quality
of water or the level of pollution. This information can be used to create a
map that describes a particular attribute contained in the database. The lakes can
have a range of colors based on the level of pollution. In addition, the different
the geometries of the elements can also be compared. Thus, for example, the GIS
it can be used to identify those wells (point geometry) that are around
2 kilometers from a lake (polygon geometry) and which have a high level of
contamination.
Vector elements can be created while respecting territorial integrity through
from the application of topological rules such as 'polygons must not be
"superimpose". Vector data can be used to represent variations.
continuities of phenomena. The contour lines and the irregular triangular networks (TIN)
they are used to represent altitude or other values in continuous evolution. The TIN are
value records at a localized point, which are connected by lines to form
an irregular mesh of triangles. The face of the triangles represents, for example, the
land surface.
There are advantages and disadvantages when using a raster or vector data model.
to represent reality.
 Advantages
Vectorial Raster
The data structure is compact.
Store the data only of the elements The structure of the data is very
digitized so it requires less simple.
memory for its storage and
tratamiento.
Efficient encoding of the topology and The superposition operations are
las operaciones espaciales. muy sencillas.
Good graphic output. The elements are
represented as vector graphics Optimal format for high variations
that do not lose definition when the data is enlarged.
escala de visualización.
They have a greater compatibility with Good image storage
entornos de bases de datos relacionales. digitales.
The rescaling operations,
reproyección son más fáciles de ejecutar.
Data is easier to maintain and
actualizar.
Allows for greater capacity of
análisis, sobretodo en redes.

Disadvantages
Vectorial Raster
Greater memory requirement of
The structure of the data is more storage. All the cells.
compleja. contienen datos.
The superposition operations are Topological rules are more difficult.
más difíciles de implementar y representar. de generar.
The graphic outputs are less striking.
and aesthetics. Depending on the resolution
Reduced effectiveness when the variation of the raster file, the elements can
data is high. to have its original limits more or less
definidos.
It is a more laborious format of
mantener actualizado.
Has a very limited amount of
información que almacena.

Non-Spatial Data
Non-spatial data can also be stored alongside spatial data.
those represented by the coordinates of the geometry of a vector or by the position
from a raster cell. In vector data, the additional data contains attributes of the
geographic entity. For example, a polygon from a forest inventory can also have
a value that serves as an identifier and information about tree species. In the
raster data the cell value can store attribute information, but it can also
it can be used as an identifier referring to the records of a table.
Data Capture
Data capture and information entry into the system consume the most
part of the time of GIS professionals. There is a wide variety of methods
used to input data into a GIS stored in a digital format.
Data printed on paper or maps on PET film can be digitized or
scanned to produce digital data.
With the digitization of cartography on analog support, vector data is produced at
through traces of points, lines, and polygon boundaries. This work can be
developed by a person manually or through vectorization programs
that automate the work on a scanned map. However, in this latter case
it will always be necessary for manual review and editing, depending on the level of quality that
is desired to obtain.
The data obtained from topographic measurements can be directly entered into
a GIS through digital data capture instruments using a technique called
analytical geometry. In addition, the deposition coordinates taken through a system of
Global Positioning System (GPS) can also be directly input into a GIS.
Remote sensors also play an important role in data collection.
They are sensors, such as cameras, scanners or lidar coupled to mobile platforms like
airplanes or satellites.
A GIS designed for the calculation of optimal routes for emergency services is capable of
determine the shortest path between two points taking into account as many directions and
circulation senses such as prohibited directions, etc. avoiding impractical areas.
A GIS for the management of a water supply network would be capable of determining, by
For example, how many subscribers would be affected by the service cut at a certain point in the
red.
A Geographic Information System can simulate flows along a linear network.
Values such as the slope, speed limit, service levels, etc. can be
incorporated into the model in order to achieve greater accuracy. The use of GIS for the
Network modeling is commonly used in transportation planning,
hydrological or linear infrastructure management.

Errors in Measurements
In theory, the real values of hydrological elements cannot be determined by
measurement because measurement errors cannot be completely eliminated. The
uncertainty in measurement has a probabilistic nature that can be defined as the
interval where it is expected that the real value will remain with a certain probability or level
trustworthy. The width of the confidence interval is also called the margin of error.
If the measurements are independent of each other, uncertainty can be estimated in
the results of the measurements taking about 20 to 25 observations and calculating the value
from the standard deviation, and then determining the confidence level of the results. In
Generally, this procedure cannot be applied in hydrometric measurements, due to the
changes in the value to be measured during the measurement period. For example, it is evident that,
on the ground, consecutive flow measurements cannot be made with a flow meter at
constant level. Consequently, an estimation of the uncertainty must be made,
examining the different sources of error in measurement.
Another problem that arises in the application of statistical data to the data
Hydrological processes are due to the assumption that observations are random variables.
independent of a fixed statistical distribution. This condition is rarely met in
hydrological measurements. The flow of a river, by nature, is not random; it depends on
previous values. It is generally accepted that the way in which it is not very important
produce the separation between hydrological data and theoretical concepts of errors. Without
embargo, it should be emphasized that no statistical analysis can replace the
correct observations, particularly because these analyses cannot eliminate the
systematic errors. Only random errors can be characterized by statistical means.
The type of error made can be:
a.Random: random errors cannot be eliminated, but they can be reduced.
effects through the repetition of the measurements of the elements. The uncertainty in the
The arithmetic mean calculated from an independent measure is the square root of.
times smaller than the uncertainty of a single measurement. The distribution of the
random errors can be considered as normal (Gaussian). In some cases, the
Normal distribution may or should be replaced by other statistical distributions.
Strategies to Reduce Random Error
yStandardize the measurement methods in the operations manual.
yTraining and accreditation of the observer.
yRefinement of the measuring instrument.
yAutomation of the instrument.
yRepetition of the measurement.
b.Systematic: systematic errors mainly arise from the instruments
and they cannot be reduced by increasing the number of measurements, if the instruments and the
measurement conditions remain unchanged. If the systematic error has a value
known, this value must be added or subtracted from the measurement result and the error due to
this source should be considered null. The systematic error must be eliminated by
corrections, appropriate adjustments or changing the instrument, and/or changing the
flow conditions, for example, the length of the straight section of the approach channel
to a gauging station. Frequently, these errors are due to measurement conditions.
difficult, like non-stationary flows, meandering river and the poor location of the
stations.
Strategies to Reduce Systematic Error
yDouble-blind studies to control expectations.
yImplementation of hidden measurements.
yConcealment of results.
yCalibration of the instrument.
These types of errors can occur together. It is very important to know the
amount of error being made.

2. Sources of error in angular, instrumental, natural determinations

and Personal.
Each instrument and measurement method has its own sources of error, therefore,
It would be difficult to provide a comprehensive list of all possible sources of errors. The sources of
specific errors are generally listed in the design descriptions of the instruments and
in the mode of use, as they appear in the ISO standards, and in the Stream Manual
Gauginde laOMM. Some typical sources of error are:
a.Error of the reference point or zero that comes from incorrect determination
from the reference point of an instrument, for example: the zero level of the scale
limnimetric, the difference between the zero of the limnimetric scale and the level of the crest of
a landfill;
b.Reading error that results from the incorrect reading of what is indicated by the instrument
of measurement, for example, due to poor visibility, wave action or ice on the scale
limnometric;
Interpolation error caused by the inaccurate evaluation of the index position
regarding the two consecutive marks on the scale between which it is located
index
d. Observation error, similar to reading error, but attributed to the observer;
e.Hysteresis;
f.Error of nonlinearity, part of the error for which a change of indication or of
the response is not proportional to the corresponding change in the value of the measured magnitude in
a determined range;
g.Error of insensitivity occurs when the instrument cannot detect a
change given in the measured element;
h.Error of deviation is due to the characteristics of the instrument in which, with the
time and under specific conditions of use, the measurement properties change due to
example: the deviation in watchmaking mechanics over time or due to the
temperature
i.Error of instability, results from the inability of an instrument to maintain
certain constants of specific meteorological properties;
j.Error out of range caused by using an instrument beyond the range of
effective measurement, lower than the minimum or higher than the maximum value for which it has been

constructed, adjusted or installed the instrument, for example: an unexpected height of the level
of water;
 k.Error of accuracy caused by the improper use of an instrument, when the error
the minimum is greater than the tolerance for the measurement.

Instrumental Errors
These are due to imperfections in the construction or adjustment of the instruments,
These errors can be reduced or eliminated by adopting the appropriate procedures.
Natural Errors
They are caused by natural effects, wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure.
atmospheric refraction, gravity, magnetic declination.
Personal Errors
It is due to the limitations of the senses of human beings, such as hearing and touch,
view, among others.

3. Practical procedures to eliminate or reduce their incidence.

4. Measurement of Horizontal Distances

The measurements of horizontal distances can be obtained directly by
reference or indirectly through calculations, in general direct measurements of
Longitudes are determined by a previous alignment.

5. Direct Addressing Methods.

6. The steel tape measure and other measuring tools and accessories
It is a measuring instrument. The most commonly used measuring tapes are 5, 10, 15, 20.
25, 30, 50, and 100 meters.
The last two are surveyor calls and are built solely in steel, already
that the force needed to stretch them could produce their extension if
they were built with a material less resistant to tension.
The smallest ones are measured in centimeters and even some in millimeters, with the marks and
the numbers painted or engraved on the surface of the tape, while those of
surveyors are marked with copper or bronze rivets fixed to the tape every 2 decimeters,
using a slightly larger rivet for odd numbers and a small numbered oval
for even numbers.
 They are generally protected inside a brass or PVC casing. Those of the surveyor.
they have two bronze handles at their ends for their exact tension it is possible
completely detach them from the wheel for greater comfort.
Very commonly used in professional environments where continuous use of this is necessary.
instrument
yExpertise on claims.
yEngineers, architects, surveyors, and those in civil construction environments.
yLocal police, national police, civil guard, firefighters, civil protection, army, among others
others.

7. Sources of error and corrections to measurements with tapes.

Tape measures are nowadays used only for quick measurements of short distances. Without
embargo, they used to be the most precise measurement method for all distances, and their use
it was well developed in the first part of the 20th century. For engineering work, the
Working lengths are generally 10 m, 30 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
Common tapes are made of fiberglass and are used for low precision.
steel tapes are more precise but easily damaged if bent or walked on.
more precise jobs, there are invar strips, made with 35% nickel and 65% steel.
The particular advantage of these tapes is that they have a negligible expansion coefficient.
compared to steel, and therefore temperature variations are not critical. Its
The disadvantage is that the metal is soft and weak, while its cost is more than 10 times.
greater than that of steel tapes.
Tape measurements are subject to the following sources of errors:
yInaccuracy in the length of the tape.
yVariations in the length of the ribbon due to temperature changes.
yVariations in the length of the tape due to changes in tensions.
yPending (since it is usually the horizontal component of the length the
what is required).
yCatenary, curve that describes a chain suspended by its ends due to the
gravitational attraction.
 yLack of alignment, when the tape is not in a straight line between the points whose
distance wishes to be measured.

yErrors in the joint of the tape lengths.

For greater accuracy, it is necessary to:

yCalibrate the tape against a known distance.

yAvoid large temperature changes by working early, late, or on days.
cloudy.
yTightening it in the same way constantly.
yCorrect by slope.
yUse the longest tape possible.

8. Indirect Distance Measurement.

It is not always possible to take a direct measurement, because there are variables that are not
they can be measured by direct comparison, that is, with patterns of the same nature, or
because the value to be measured is very large or very small and depends on obstacles from another

nature, among others.

Indirect measurement is one in which, by measuring a variable, we can
calculate another different one, for which we are interested.
When the calculation of a measurement is done indirectly from others that already
we know that they have their own margin of error, we will have to calculate along with the value
indirect, which is also commonly referred to as derived value, the error of this, normally
using the total differential. To the transmission of errors of the known magnitudes to
Those calculated indirectly are commonly referred to as error propagation.
Conclusion
 Recommendations

yThe hydrological data will allow a good understanding of the hydrological conditions of
a specific area. They will be used to improve or establish a forecasting program with
hydrological fines, when such a program is needed. A program of this kind must
include forecasts of water levels, flows, ice conditions, flooding and
stormy seas.
yTo facilitate the interpretation of the observed phenomena, it would be advisable to present
the data in the form of statistical values, such as averages, maximum and minimum values,
typical deviations, frequency distribution (tables or curves), among others.
 Bibliographic References

Beckwith, Thomas G. Marangoni, Roy D. LinhardV. John H. Mechanical measurements

2007 Pearson/Prentice Hall 6th ed. ISBN 0201847655
Colombo de Cudmani, L., Experimental errors. Criteria for their determination and
control'.U.N.T. 1997.
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Veras H, Luis E. Analysis of a Hydrological Station. Caracas, 2010.