Computer Structure Slides

Aims of Lesson 1
1. To discuss the 3 main parts of the
processor
2. To discuss the functions of these 3 parts
3. To introduce the address, data and control
buses

Block Diagram of the
Computer System
PROCESSOR
MAIN MEMORY
BACKING STORAGE
DEVICES
INPUT
DEVICES
OUTPUT
DEVICES

Parts of the Processor
 Control Unit
 Makes sure the program instructions are carried out
in the correct order
 Controls the ALU and Registers
 Makes sure everything happens in the correct place
at the correct time
 Registers
 A group of storage locations in the processor for
holding instructions being executed and addresses to
be accessed
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
 Carries out all calculations in the processor
 Carries out all logic functions using AND, OR and
NOT gates

The Processor Structure
Main
Memory
Other
registers
Arithmetic
and Logic
Unit
Memory
Address
Register
Memory
Data
Register
Control
Unit
Address Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus
Electronic
Clock
Clock Pulses

Buses
 Buses
 Three sets of wires
called buses connect the
processor to the memory
and input/output devices
 Address Bus
 Data Bus
 Control Bus

Buses
 Address Bus
 The address bus carries the address
information from the processor to main
memory and is unidirectional
 The number of wires in the address bus
affects how many storage locations can
be accessed
 Each of the wires in the bus can be
switched on or off
 A typical microcomputer has 32 wires in
the address bus and can therefore
address 2 locations
32
Using 2 wires you
could address 4
locations i.e.
01
10
00
11
4 wires = 16 locations
8 wires = 256 locations
16 wires = 65,536
locations

Aims of Lesson 2
1. To revise the role of the address bus
2. To introduce the data and control buses
3. To discuss the different control lines
1. Read/Write
2. Maskable/Non Maskable Interrupt
3. Reset

Main
Memory
Other
registers
Arithmetic
and Logic
Unit
Memory
Address
Register
Memory
Data
Register
Control
Unit
Address Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus
Electronic
Clock
Clock Pulses
1000 0001

Address Bus
 The address bus carries the address information
from the processor to main memory and is
unidirectional
 4 wires = 16 locations
 8 wires = 256 locations
 16 wires = 65,536 locations
 32 wires = 4,294,967,292 locations
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111

Main
Memory
Other
registers
Arithmetic
and Logic
Unit
Memory
Address
Register
Memory
Data
Register
Control
Unit
Address Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus
Electronic
Clock
Clock Pulses
1001 0111
1001 0111
READ LINE

Main
Memory
Other
registers
Arithmetic
and Logic
Unit
Memory
Address
Register
Memory
Data
Register
Control
Unit
Address Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus
Electronic
Clock
Clock Pulses
0001 0001
READ LINE

Main
Memory
Other
registers
Arithmetic
and Logic
Unit
Memory
Address
Register
Memory
Data
Register
Control
Unit
Address Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus
Electronic
Clock
Clock Pulses
0001 0001
WRITE LINE

Buses
 Data Bus
 The data bus carries data to and from the processor
 The data bus is therefore bi-directional or 2 way
 The number of wires in the data bus determines the
quantity of data that the bus can carry
 Increasing the number of wires in the data bus is one
method of improving computer performance

Control Bus
 The control bus is made up of a number of
separate wires each with their own functions
 Read/Write Line
 Reading from or writing to Main Memory
 Reset
 Used to return the processor to its initial state
when the system freezes
 Clock
 The clock line carries a series of clock pulse at a
constant rate. These pulses synchronise the
processing
 Measure in Giga hertz

Control Bus
 Interrupts
 A signal from an input or output device that
causes a break in the processor’s current
program, for example, printer out of paper etc
 Maskable
 A piece of code can be written to ignore certain interrupts
 Non Maskable Interrupts
 The processor cannot mask or ignore the interrupt

Aims of Lesson 3
Last Lessons
 To revise the 3 different
buses
1. Address
2. Data
3. Control
 To discuss the different
control lines
1. Read/Write
2. Maskable/Non Maskable
Interrupt
3. Reset
4. Clock
 Today’s Lesson
 Discuss the Fetch Execute
cycle
 Total Addressable Memory

Memory Read Operation
Main
Memory
Other
registers
Arithmetic
and Logic
Unit
Memory
Address
Register
Memory
Data
Register
Control
Unit
Address Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus
Electronic
Clock
Clock Pulses
1001 0111
READ LINE

Fetch Execute Cycle
 The processor places a value in the
Memory Address Register and sets up
the Address Bus with address
 Control Unit activates the Read line
 Instruction is transferred from memory
to processor using data bus
 Instruction is decoded
 Instruction is executed This may result in
another Memory Read
Operation or a
Memory Write
Operation
Memory Read
Operation

Memory Write Operation
Main
Memory
Other
registers
Arithmetic
and Logic
Unit
Memory
Address
Register
Memory
Data
Register
Control
Unit
Address Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus
Electronic
Clock
Clock Pulses
0001 0001
WRITE LINE

Memory Write Operation
1. The processor sets up the
Address bus
2. Processor sets up the data
bus with value to be written to
memory
3. Write line is activated
4. Contents are transferred to
the required storage location
in Main Memory

Total Addressable Memory
= Number of storage locations X Size of each
storage location
 What is the total addressable memory if you
have an 8 bit address bus and a 16 bit data
bus?
= 2 X 16
= 256 X 16 = 4096 bits
8
= 512 kilobytes
8

Total Addressable Memory
 What is the total
addressable memory if
you have a 32 bit
address bus and a 16
bit data bus?
= 2 X 16 bits
2 X 2 bytes
= 2
= 1 Gigabyte X 2
= 8 Gigabytes
 2 = 1 kilobyte
 2 = 1 megabyte
 2 = 1 gigabyte
32
32
33
10
20
30
3

Aims of Lesson 4
Last Lessons
 To revise the 3 different
buses
1. Address
2. Data
3. Control
 To discuss the different
control lines
1. Read/Write
Interrupt
3. Reset
4. Clock
 Discuss the Fetch Execute
cycle
 Elements of Computer
Memory
 Registers
 Cache
 Main Memory
 Backing Storage
 Types of RAM
 Dynamic Random Access
Memory
 Static Random Access
Memory
 Video Random Access
Memory

Computer Memory
 The elements of
computer memory are
registers, cache, main
memory and backing
storage
 Registers
 Storage locations inside
the processor where data
can be accessed
immediately, or around 1
nanosecond 10
seconds
-9

Cache Memory
 A small amount of memory used to store often used
instructions
 Level 1 Cache = build in to the processor chip, speeds of
access = 5 nanoseconds
 Level 2 Cache = build on to processor or very close to it,
speed of access = 15 nanoseconds
Cache
Memory
(SRAM)
Processor
Main
Memory
(DRAM)

Dynamic Random Access
Memory
 DRAM is a type of RAM chip which needs to
have its contents constantly refreshed (about
1000 times per second)
 Typical access time = 50 nanoseconds
 Majority of computer’s main memory is made
up of DRAM as it is much cheaper that
SRAM

Static Random Access
Memory
 Used in the processors
cache memory
 SRAM does not need to
be constantly refreshed
 Much faster that
DRAM, typically 10
nanoseconds
 Keep contents as long
as power is applied to
RAM chip

Aims of Lesson 5
Last Lessons
 To revise the 3 different buses
1. Address
2. Data
3. Control
 To discuss the different control
lines
1. Read/Write
Interrupt
3. Reset
4. Clock
 Discuss the Fetch Execute cycle
 Elements of Computer Memory
 Register, Cache, Main Memory,
Backing Storage
 DRAM, SRAM
 Video Random Access
Memory
 Types of ROM
 Backing Storage
 Comparing Computer Memory
 Measures of Performance

Video Random Access
Memory
 VRAM is used to hold the data which is
displayed on the monitor
 The amount of VRAM is directly related to the
number of colours and the screen resolution
 VRAM is sometimes contained in a separate
graphics card and can be upgraded to display
3D graphics

ROM
 Read Only Memory is a type of Memory where the
contents are stored permanently
 Holds the Bootstrap loader
 Programmable Read Only Memory = is empty of
data when you buy it and is programmed by the
user
 Erasable PROM = can be programmed, erased
and reprogrammed, using a UV light
 Flash ROM = May be programmed whilst inside
the computer and used in USB Pens and Memory
cards for cameras

Slow >1000000Backing Store
Optical Disk
Slow 1000000Backing Store
Hard Disk (Virtual Memory)
Fast 50 to 100Main Memory
ROM
Fast 50Main Memory
DRAM
Very Fast 5/15Cache
SRAM
Immediate 1Registers
Speed (nano seconds)Type of Memory

Measures of Performance
 Clock Speed = The number of pulses per second
measured in Ghz
 More clock cycles = more data fetched and executed
 Fetching 1 instruction may take 10 clock cycles
 MIPS = Millions of Instructions per second
 Measure of the average number of machine code
instructions executed
 FLOPS = Floating Point Operations Per Second
 Measure of the Arithmetical Calculating Speed of the
computer

Aims of Lesson 6
Last Lessons
 To revise the 3 different buses
1. Address
2. Data
3. Control
 To discuss the different control
lines
1. Read/Write
2. Maskable/Non Maskable Interrupt
3. Reset
4. Clock
 Discuss the Fetch Execute cycle
 Elements of Computer Memory
 Register, Cache, Main Memory,
Backing Storage
 DRAM, SRAM
 Video Random Access Memory
 Types of ROM
 Backing Storage
 Comparing Computer Memory
 Measures of Performance
 Computer Structure Revision
Quiz
 Factors affecting system
performance
 Data Bus Width
 Use of cache
 Rate of transfer from
peripherals
 Other Factors
 Increasing clock speed
 Adding more Main Memory
 Increasing VRAM
 Adding more processors

Computer Structure Quiz
1. Name the 3 buses connecting the processor
to Memory and Input and Output devices
2. List 4 functions of control bus
3. Give the 5 steps in the fetch execute cycle
4. My computer has a 24 bit address bus and
a 16 bit data bus. Calculate the total
addressable memory
5. Which bus affects computer performance,
explain your answer

Computer Structure Quiz
1. What is cache memory
2. Name the 2 main types of RAM
3. List the following in order of speed of
access, with the fastest first
Cache Registers Backing Storage Main Memory
5. Name the 3 different types of ROM
6. Give 3 measures of computer performance

Factors Affecting System
Performance
 Data Bus Width
 Increasing the data bus width
increases the quantity of data
flowing between the processor and
memory
 word length
 Use of cache
 It is much faster to access
instructions and data from cache
than main memory
 Cache may have a separate data
bus called the backside bus
 Rate of transfer from
peripherals
 The rate of transfer is
determined by the type of
interface connecting peripheral
to processor
 USB 1 = 12 Megabits per
second
 USB 2 = 480 Megabits per
second
 Increasing clock speed
 Adding more Main
Memory
 Increasing VRAM
 Adding more processors

Current Trends
1. Increasing clock speeds
 Increase cannot go on indefinately
 Heat and power consumption problems
2. Increasing Memory
 Increased memory required to hold the
operating system
 Memory required for individual applications has
risen
3. Increasing Backing Storage
1. Increase in Video cameras, digital cameras,
mp3s require more backing storage

Data Representation –
Learning Aims
1. Detailed description of the purpose of the ALU and
the Control Unit
2. Description of the purpose of registers, to hold data
being processed, instructions being executed, and
addresses to be accessed
3. Description of the function of the data bus and the
address bus
4. Description of the read, write and timing functions
of the control lines
5. Identification of other control lines, including reset
and interrupt lines

Learning Aims
1. Simple description, referring to the appropriate
buses and control lines, of the steps in the fetch
and execute cycle
2. Description of the following elements of computer
memory, registers, cache, main memory and
backing storage
3. Distinction between the above elements of
memory according to function and speed of access
4. The concept of addressability

Learning Aims
1. Description and evaluation of the following
measures of performance; clock speed, MIPS,
FLOPS and application based tests
2. Description of the effect the following factors have
on system performance; data bus width, use of
cache memory, rate of data transfer to and from
peripherals
3. Description of the following trends in computer
hardware, including increasing clock speeds,
increasing memory and backing storage capacity

Computer Structure Slides

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Computer Structure Slides